Key Concepts in Public Opinion and Political Processes

Aggregate public opinion

Aggregate public opinion refers to the collective attitudes and beliefs of a population on a particular issue or set of issues. It's essentially the sum of individual opinions, often measured through public opinion polls or surveys. This collective view is significant in democracies as it can influence policy decisions and the actions of political leaders.

Broadcast media

Communications technologies, such as television and radio, that transmit information over airwaves.

Cognitive shortcuts

Cognitive shortcuts, also known as heuristics, are mental processes that allow us to make quick decisions by simplifying complex information. They help us navigate everyday situations efficiently but can also lead to errors in judgment or biased thinking.

Coercion

A method of eliminating nonparticipation or free riding by potential group members by requiring participation, as in many labor unions.

Coercive Federalism

A form of federalism in which the federal government pressures the states to change their policies by using regulations, mandates, or conditions (often involving threats to withdraw federal funding).

Core Values

democracy, liberty, and equality. These values set broad limits on how political conflicts will be resolved. Democracy implies that the people are the ultimate authority over political outcomes. Liberty implies that people can express whatever demands they want and to choose among a wide range of strategies in trying to shape the outcomes of political decisions. And equality means that everyone has an equal share of decision-making power. Despite conflicts over their interpretations, most Americans believe in these core values, and reminding ourselves of this can help us work toward resolving political conflicts.

Corporative ownership

Cooperative ownership, or a co-op, refers to a business or organization that is owned and democratically controlled by its members who use its services. These members can be consumers, workers, or community members. Instead of a traditional hierarchical structure, a co-op operates based on the principle of one-member, one-vote, regardless of their investment level. This ensures that all members have a say in how the cooperative is run.

Equal time provision

An FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to provide equal airtime on any non-news programming to all candidates running for an office.

Fairness doctrine

whereby broadcasters had to present opposing points of view as part of their coverage of important events; usually this was done by broadcasting editorials during news programs that presented both sides of an issue.

Federal Communications Commission

A government agency created in 1934 to regulate American radio stations and later expanded to regulate television, wireless communications technologies, and other broadcast media.

Filtering

The influence on public opinion that results from journalists' and editors' decisions about which of many potential news stories to report.

Framing

The influence on public opinion caused by the way a story is presented or covered, including the details, explanations, and context offered in the report.

hostile media effect

The tendency of people to see neutral media coverage of an event as biased against their point of view.

Ideological polarization

Sharp differences in Americans' overall ideas of the size and scope of government.

issues with survey methods

Building a random sample of respondents is

not easy. Historically, pollsters chose households at random from census data

and sent interviewers out for face-to-face meetings or contacted people by

telephone using random digit dialing, which allows surveyors to find people

who have unlisted phone numbers or who use only a cell phone. In the

modern era, pollsters contact people using phone calls, emails, or Internet

advertising. Some organizations build large databases of respondents that can

be sampled for multiple surveys over time. These techniques require careful

weighting and analysis strategies to ensure that they come close to the ideal

of a truly random survey. Sometimes these adjustments successfully predict

results, and sometimes they don't.

To keep costs down, many organizations use a form of Internet polling, in

which volunteer respondents log on to a website to participate in a survey, or

robo-polls, in which an automated system phones people and interviews them.

While these techniques are less expensive, there are serious doubts about the

quality of the samples they produce.

Latent Opinion

An opinion formed on the spot, when it is needed (as distinct from a deeply held opinion that is stable over time).

Linking institution

An actor or a group of actors in American politics that informs citizens about government actions or helps them

exercise control over policy.

media

Television, radio, print media, and the Internet all inform the public about events in America and elsewhere. As discussed in Chapter 6, although media coverage is a prime source of information about domestic

and foreign policy for most Americans, one cannot say that evaluations of America's foreign policy are driven solely by the news media's decisions about what to cover and how to report it.

Mass media

Sources that provide information to the average citizen, such as newspapers, television networks, radio stations, podcasts, and websites

Mass survey

A way to measure public opinion by interviewing a relatively small sample of a large population

Measuring public opinion

For the most part, information about public opinion comes from mass surveys

—interviews (typically online) with a relatively small number of individuals. A

mass survey seeks to measure the attitudes of a large population or group of

people, such as the residents of a specific congressional district, evangelicals,

senior citizens, or even the nation's entire adult population (see the How It

Works graphic on pp. 194-95). For large groups such as these, it would be

impossible to survey everyone. So surveys typically involve samples of

between a few hundred and several thousand individuals.

Media conglomerates

Companies that control a large number of media sources across several types of media outlets

Media effects

The influence of media coverage on average citizens' opinions and actions.

Political socialization

The process by which an individual's political opinions are shaped by other people and the surrounding culture.

Policy mood

The level of public support for

expanding the government's role in society; whether the public

wants government action on a specific issue

population

The group of people whom a researcher or pollster

wants to study, such as evangelicals, senior citizens, or Americans.

Public Opinion

Citizens' views on politics and

government actions.

Public opinion and policymaking

Moreover, careful analysis of the connection

between opinions and actions shows that this linkage does not exist

because politicians are able to shape public opinion in line with what they

want to do; rather, politicians behave in line with their constituents'

opinions because to do otherwise would place the politicians in jeopardy

of losing the next election

Random Sampling

using a random sample

depends on the sample size. Sampling error is large for small samples of

around 200 or fewer but decreases rapidly as sample size increases.

The graph shows how the sampling error for a random sample decreases as

sample size increases.

sample

Within a population, the group of people surveyed in

order to gauge the whole population's opinion. Researchers use

samples because it would be impossible to interview the entire

population.

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Sampling error

The predicted difference between the

average opinion expressed by survey respondents and the average

opinion in the population, sometimes called the mar gin of error.

Increasing the number of respondents lowers the sampling error.

Sound bites

a short, memorable phrase or statement used by a politician or government official to convey a key message or position in a concise and impactful way. It's designed to be easily remembered and repeated by others, often used in media interviews, speeches, and campaign events.

Surveys

research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior

Types of sampling

The two main categories are probability sampling (where each member has a known chance of selection) and non-probability sampling (where selection isn't based on probability). Specific techniques within these categories include simple random, stratified, cluster, and systematic sampling for probability, and convenience, quota, and snowball sampling for non-probability.

Trust in Government

Trust in government increases during times of national tragedy, trust in government has generally declined since 1960

What shapes how we think

Ideology, Public Opinion, Media Influence, Cognitive Biases, Organizational Culture, Groupthink, Personality Traits

Voting cues

Pieces of information about a candidate

that are readily available, are easy to interpret, and lead a citizen to

decide to vote for a particular candidate

527 organization

A tax-exempt group formed primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and to issue ads that do not directly endorse or oppose a candidate. Unlike PACs, they are not subject to contribution limits and spending caps

Coat tail effect

The ability of a popular president to generate

additional support for candidates affiliated with their party. Coattails

are weak or nonexistent in most American elections

Caucus (congressional)

The organization of Democrats within

the House and Senate that meets to discuss and debate the party's positions on various issues in order to reach a consensus and to assign leadership positions

conference

The organization of Republicans within the House

and Senate that meets to discuss and debate the party's positions on various issues in order to reach a consensus and to assign leadership positions.

Dealignment

Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.

Divided government

A situation in which the House,

Senate, and presidency are not controlled by the same party—for

example, when Democrats hold the majority of House and Senate

seats and the president is a Republican

Issue ownership

The theory that voters associate certain issues or issue positions with certain parties (like Democrats and support for government-provided health insurance)

National committee

An American political party's principal organization, comprising party representatives from each state

New deal coalition

Debate over the New Deal brought together the New Deal coalition of Black Americans, Catholics, Jews, union members, and White southerners, who became strong supporters of Democratic candidates over the next

generation.13 This transformation established one of the basic divisions between the parties that exists to the present day: Democrats generally favor a large federal government that takes an active role in managing the economy and regulating behavior, while Republicans generally believe that many such programs should be provided by state and local governments or not provided

at all.

Nominating conventions

Presidential nominating conventions happen

late in the summer of an election year. Their main task is to select the party's presidential nominee, although usually the vote at the convention is a formality; in most recent presidential contests, one candidate has emerged from the nomination process leading up to the convention with a clear majority of delegates and has been able to win the nomination on the first ballot.

Open/closed/semi-closed/jungle primaries

Open: A primary election in which any registered

voter can participate in the contest, regardless of party affiliation.

Closed: A primary election in which only registered

members of a particular political party can vote

Semi-closed: A primary in which anyone who is a registered member of the party or registered as an Independent can vote.

Jungle:A voting system in which a candidate must win

more than 50 percent of votes to win the election. If no candidate wins enough votes to take office, a runoff election is held between the top two vote-getters.

Party coalitions

The groups that identify with a

political party, usually described in demographic terms such as Black

Democrats or evangelical Republicans

Party identification

A citizen's loyalty to a specific political party.

Party organization (party in government, electorate, etc)

A specific political party's leaders and workers at the national, state, and local levels.

Party platform

A set of objectives outlining the party's issue

positions and priorities. Candidates are not required to support their

party's platform.

Party principle

The idea that a political party exists as an

organization distinct from its elected officials or party leaders.

Party systems (general ideas, not specific eras)

Periods in which the names of the

major political parties, their supporters, and the issues dividing them

have remained relatively stable.

First (1789- 1828) Federalists, Democratic-

Republicans (neither party was dominant)

Location of the capital, financial issues (e.g., national bank)

Second (1829-1856) Democrats, Whigs Tariffs (farmers vs. merchants), slavery

Third

(1857- 1896) Democrats, Republicans Slavery (pre-Civil War), Reconstruction (post-Civil War), industrialization

Fourth (1897- 1932)

Democrats, Republicans Industrialization, immigration

Fifth (1933- 1968) Democrats, Republicans Size and scope of the federal government

Sixth (1969-present)

Democrats, Republicans (neither party is

dominant) Size and scope of the federal government, civil rights, social issues, foreign policy

Permanent campaign

The continual quest for reelection

that is rooted in high-cost professional campaigns that are

increasingly reliant on consultants and expensive media campaigns.

Political parties

The group of officeholders who belong to a specific political party and were elected as candidates of that party.

Political Action committees

An interest group or a division of an interest group that can raise money to contribute to campaigns or to spend on ads in support of candidates. The amount

a PAC can receive from each of its donors and the amount it can spend on federal electioneering are strictly limited.

Primary election

A ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election.

Realignment

A change in the size or composition of the party

coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. Realignments typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the course of a decade or longer

Republican and Democratic party organization structure

The Republican Party is organized into local precincts, county and state committees, and the national Republican National Committee (RNC), each managing party activities at their respective levels.

The Democratic Party is structured with local precincts and county committees at the grassroots level, state party organizations in each state, and the Democratic National Committee (DNC) at the national level, which coordinates strategy, fundraising, and the presidential nominating process

Republican and Democratic National Committees

The Republican National Committee (RNC) and the Democratic National Committee (DNC) are the central governing bodies of their respective parties, responsible for national strategy, fundraising, organizing conventions, and supporting candidates across the country.

Revolution of 1800

Jefferson's election changed the direction of the government from Federalist to Democratic- Republican, first peaceful transfer of power

Spoils system

The practice of rewarding party supporters with

benefits like federal government positions

Superdelegates

(in the Democratic Party) an unelected delegate who is free to support any candidate for the presidential nomination at the party's national convention.

Unified government

in which the same party controls Congress and the presidency

Whig party

An American political party formed in the 1830s to oppose President Andrew Jackson and the Democrats, stood for protective tariffs, national banking, and federal aid for internal improvements: split between abolitionists, who wanted to end slavery, and politicians who agreed

with the Democrats

15th Amendment

Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color , or precious condition of servitude

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

23rd Amendment

Gives Washington DC electoral college votes as if it were a state (DC still has no representation in Congress)

527 organization

A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election in which clearly identified candidate is referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted.

501 c

nonprofit group that may legally address political matters but may not lobby or campaign; donations to it are tax deductible

campaigning

traveling around their states or districts, talking with constituents, and explaining their actions in office

—all in the hope of winning and keeping support for the next election.

Caucus (Electoral)

A local meeting in which

party members select a party's nominee for the general election

Closed Primaries

A primary election in which only registered members of a particular

political party can vote.

coattails

The ability of a popular president to generate

additional support for candidates affiliated with their party. Coattails are weak or nonexistent in most American elections.

Direct mobilization

process by which citizens are contacted personally by candidate and party organizations to take part in political activities

Electoral College (how calculated, why NE and ME are unusual, swing states, how many to win, etc)

The Electoral College is the system used to elect the U.S. president, where each state gets a number of electors equal to its total number of Senators and Representatives, totaling 538 nationwide; a candidate needs 270 to win. Most states use a winner-takes-all approach, but Nebraska and Maine are unique in splitting their votes by congressional district. Swing states like Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Arizona are closely contested and heavily targeted by campaigns because they can decide the outcome. If no candidate reaches 270, the House of Representatives selects the president.

Electoral votes

Votes cast by members of the Electoral

College; after a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a given state, that candidate's slate of electors casts electoral votes for the candidate on behalf of that state.

Election cycle

The two-year period between general elections.

Elections

A formal and organised choice by vote of a person for a political office or other position

Elections of government officials (basics)

In the United States, government officials are elected at the federal, state, and local levels through a system of representative democracy. The President is elected every four years via the Electoral College, while Senators (6-year terms) and Representatives (2-year terms) are directly elected by voters in their states and districts. At the state level, governors, legislators, and other officials are elected based on state laws, and local elections choose mayors, council members, school board officials, and more. Elections are highly decentralized, with states managing most aspects, including voter eligibility, election dates, and ballot design

Elections in Constitution (basic rules)

The U.S. Constitution sets basic rules for elections primarily in Article I, Section 4, known as the Elections Clause. It gives state legislatures the power to decide the "Times, Places and Manner" of elections for Senators and Representatives, but allows Congress to override or modify those rules at any time. The Constitution also requires that federal elections be held regularly and that all eligible citizens have the right to vote without discrimination, as reinforced by later amendments like the 15th, 19th, 24th, and 26th

Factors that affect voting

Age Education Income Race and ethnicity Gender Location Voter laws Interest in politics

Election type

Federal Election Commission

The government agency that enforces and regulates election laws; made up of six presidential appointees, of whom no more than three can be members of the same party.

General election

The election in which voters cast ballots for House members, senators, and (every four years) a president and vice president.

Get out the Vote/ground game

A campaign's efforts to "get out the vote" or make sure its supporters vote on Election Day.

Hard money

Donations that are used to help elect or defeat a specific candidate.

Impacts on voting and participation

Voter suppression

Voter ID laws

Registration barriers

Polling place access

Misinformation

Political polarization

Media influence

Social movements

Civic education

Trust in government

Campaign outreach

Weather on election day

Incumbent

A politician running for reelection to the office

they currently hold.

Majority voting

A voting system in which a candidate must win

more than 50 percent of votes to win the election. If no candidate wins enough votes to take office, a runoff election is held between the top two vote-getters

Open primaries

A primary election in which any registered

voter can participate in the contest, regardless of party affiliation

Open seat

An elected position for which there is no incumbent.

Paradox of voting

The question of why citizens vote even

though their individual votes stand little chance of changing the

election outcome.

Plurality voting

A voting system in which the candidate who

receives the most votes within a geographic area wins the election,

regardless of whether that candidate wins a majority (more than

half) of the votes.

Popular vote

The votes cast by citizens in an election

Primary

A ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election.

Proportional allocation

During the presidential primaries, the

practice of determining the number of convention delegates allotted

to each candidate based on the percentage of the popular vote cast

for each candidate. All Democratic primaries and caucuses use this

system, as do some states' Republican primaries and caucuses

Prospective Voting

is when voters make decisions based on what they believe a candidate or party will do in the future if elected. It focuses on campaign promises, proposed policies, and visions for the country rather than past performance.