All AP Biology Vocab

Hypothesis

A testable prediction based on observations

Theory

Summarizes a group of hypotheses

Experimental Group

A group in an experiment that receives the treatment of the variable being tested

Scientific Law

A statement of fact (mathematical formula)

Control Group

A group in an experiment that does not receive any of the treatment

Deductive Reasoning

Specific results are derived from general premises

Inductive Reasoning

Derive generalizations based on a large number of specific observations

Constants

Things that do not change throughout the experiment, they stay constant

Alternative Hypothesis

A hypothesis that may be supported or proven by data

Null Hypothesis

A hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject, or nullify a question

Independent Variable

The one factor that is changed by the person doing the experiment

Dependent Variable

The factor which is measured in the experiment

Central Tendencies

The center of the distribution can be described by the mean, median, or mode

Mean

The average of the data set

Median

The middle number in a range of data points

Mode

The value that appears most often in a data set

Variability

the measure of how far a data set diverges from the central tendency

Range

The difference between the largest and smallest values

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out the data is from the mean

Standard Error of the Mean

Used to determine the precision of and confidence in the mean value

Matter

Anything that takes up space and has mass

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions

Compound

A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio

Octet Rule

Elements will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their valence shell and become stable

Capillary Action

The upward movement of water due the the forces of cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension

Chemical Bonds

An attraction between two atoms, resulting from the sharing or transferring of valence electrons

Hydrogen Bonds

The partially positive hydrogen atom in one polar covalent molecule will be attracted to an electronegative atom in another polar covalent molecule

Covalent Bonds

When two or more atoms share electrons (usually between 2 nonmetals)

Ionic Bonds

The attraction between oppositely charged atoms ; there is a transfer of electrons

Cohesion

attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same kind

Electronegativity

The measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons

Adhesion

The clinging of one molecule to a different molecule

Atomic Mass

The number of protons plus neutrons averaged over all isotopes of an element

Solute

Substance that is dissolved

Solution

Homogenous mix of two or more substances

Solvent

Dissolving agent in a solution

Valence Electrons

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction

Functional Groups

Chemical groups attached to the carbon skeleton that participate in chemical reactions

Organic Chemistry

The study of compounds with covalently bonded carbon

Organic Compounds

Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen

Hydrocarbons

Organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate is an organic compound that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells

Macromolecule

A very large molecule (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acid, and lipids) built up from smaller chemical structures

Dehydration Reaction

Bonds two monomers with the loss of H2O

Hydrolysis Reaction

Breaks down the bonds in a polymer by adding H2O

Monomers

The repeating units that make up polymers

Polymers

Chain like macromolecules of similar or identical repeating units that are covalently bonded together

Carbohydrate

A macromolecule ; include sugars and polymers of sugars ; contain a carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups ; comprised of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Monosaccharide

Simple sugars ; monomers of carbohydrates

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides joined together by covalent bonds

Polysaccharide

Polymer with many sugars (monosaccharides) joined via dehydration reactions

Glycosidic linkage

A covalent bond that links two monosaccharides together

Starch

How plants store glucose ; a polymer of glucose monomers

Cellulose

A tough substance that forms plant cell walls ; a structural polysaccharide

Glycogen

How animals store glucose ; a polymer of glucose

Amino Acids

Molecules that have an amino group and a carboxyl group

Polypeptide

Many amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Hydrophobic

Attract away from water

Hydrophilic

Attract towards water

Protein

Molecule consisting of polypeptides (polymers of amino acids) folded into a 3D shape ; comprised of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur ; a macromolecule

Amino Acid

Molecules that have an amino group and a carboxyl group

Primary Structure

Linear chain of amino acids ; determined via genes ; dictates secondary and tertiary forms

Secondary Structure

Coils and folds due to hydrogen bonding within the polypeptide backbone

Tertiary Structure

3D folding due to interactions between the side chains of the amino acids ; reinforced by hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges of the side chains

Quaternary Structure

Association of two or more polypeptides

Lipid

Class of molecules that do not include true polymers ; small in size ; sometimes they are not always considered macromolecules

Fat

Composed of glycerol and fatty acids

Fatty Acid

Long carbon chains (carboxyl group at one end that bonds to glycerol)

Phospholipid

Two fatty acids attached to a glycerol and a phosphate ; a major component of the cell membrane

Denature

When a protein structure is altered so it can no longer function

Steroid

A class of lipids that have four fused rings

DNA

Consists of two polynucleotides ; polymer of nucleic acids ; forms a double helix and strands are antiparallel ; held together by hydrogen bonds between bases ; A to T & C to G

RNA

Single stranded polynucleotide ; polymer of nucleic acids ; variable in shape ; A to U & C to G

Nucleotide

A nucleotide is the basic building block of nucleic acids ; contains a nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar (pentose) and a phosphate group ; monomer of nucleic acids

Nucleic Acid

Polymers mode of nucleotide monomers ; a macromolecule ; function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information ; the two forms are DNA and RNA

Antiparallel

Used to describe the opposite orientations in DNA's two polynucleotide strands

Gene

the basic unit of heredity

Pyrimidine

A nitrogenous base with one ring with 6 atoms

Purine

A nitrogenous base with one ring with 6 atoms bonded to one ring with 5 atoms (2 rings total)

Cells

the basic structural and functional units of every organism

Prokaryote

a type of cell ; domains bacteria and archaea ; DNA is in the nucleoid region ; generally smaller in size than eukaryotes

Eukaryote

a type of cell ; domains protists, fungi, animals, and plants ; DNA is in the nucleus ; they contain membrane bound organelles

Chromosomes

they contain genetic information and are found in the nucleus

Organelles

membrane bound structures in eukaryotes

Nucleolus

the dense region of the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized → rRNA is combined with proteins to form large and small subunits of ribosomes ; then the subunits exit via nuclear pores → they assemble into ribosomes and then the ribosomes translate messages found on messenger RNA (mRNA) into the primary structure of polypeptides

RIbosomes

comprised of ribosomal RNA and protein ; their function is to synthesize proteins ; they can be found in two locations ; the cytosol or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum

Rough ER

contains ribosomes ; functions are to synthesize membranes and compartmentalize the cell to keep proteins formed in the rough ER separate from those free ribosomes

Smooth ER

contains no ribosomes ; synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies the cell

Cisternae

flattened membranous sacs in the golgi

Autophagy

lysosomes can recycle their own cells organic materials ; this allows the cell to renew itself

Lysosomes

membranous sacs with hydrolytic enzymes ; function is to hydrolyze macromolecules in animal cells

Peroxisomes

they are similar to lysosomes ; membrane bound metabolic compartment ; they catalyze reactions that produce H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), there are enzymes in peroxisomes then break down H2O2 to water

Golgi

contains flattened membranous sacs called cisternae ; the golgi has directionality, the cis face (which receives vesicles from the ER) and the trans face (which sends vesicles back out into cytosol to other locations or to the plasma membrane for secretion) ; functions are that it receives transport vesicles with materials from the ER, modifies the materials, sorts materials, adds molecular tags, and packages materials into new transport vesicles that exit the membrane via exocytosis

Nucleus

a cell organelle ; contains chromosomes ; it is enclosed by the nuclear envelope (double membrane) and has pores ; contains a nucleolus

Vacuoles

large vesicles that stem from the ER and golgi ; selective in transport. There are three types. Food vacuole which form via phagocytosis (cell eating) and then are digested by lysosomes. Contractile vacuoles maintain water levels in cells. Central vacuoles are only found in plants and they contain inorganic ions and water and are important for turgor pressure.

Stroma

fluid around the thylakoids ; location for the calvin structure : they contain chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes

Microfilaments

a type of fiber in the cytoskeleton ; they are thin solid rods that are made of the protein actin ; there functions are to maintain cell shape (bear tension), assist in muscle contraction and cell motility (the actin works with another protein called myosin to cause a contraction), and the division of animal cells.

Grana

organized stacks of thylakoids ; light dependent reactions occur here

Thylakoids

membranous sacs that are inside chloroplasts double membrane