Intro to Psychology Study Guide ~ Finals

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psyche

Greek word meaning "mind" or "soul."

Evolution

The idea that behaviors and mental processes have developed over time to help organisms survive and reproduce.

Founder of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt; he opened the first psychology lab (1879) to study conscious experience scientifically.

4 Goals of Psychology

Describe, explain, predict, and control behavior.

Psychiatry vs. Psychology

Psychiatry is medical (can prescribe medication); psychology focuses on therapy, research, and behavior.

7 Perspectives in Psychology

Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Sociocultural, Evolutionary.

Psychology Subfields

Clinical, Counseling, Developmental, Cognitive, Social, Industrial-Organizational, Educational, Forensic, Sports.

Basic Research

Conducted to increase knowledge.

Applied Research

Conducted to solve real-world problems.

Case Study

In-depth study of one person or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural environment without interference.

Survey

Collecting data through questionnaires or interviews.

Cross-sectional Study

Compares different age groups at one point in time.

Correlation Study

Measures relationship between variables (does not prove causation).

Longitudinal Study

Studies the same group over a long period of time.

Experiment

Research method that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

Confederate

A person working with the researcher who pretends to be a participant.

Uncontrolled/Confounding Variable

A variable that affects results but isn't accounted for.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured.

Controlled Variable

Variables kept constant to prevent interference.

Control Group

Group that does not receive the treatment.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation does not equal causation.

Placebo

A fake treatment used to control for expectations.

Single Blind Study

Participants don't know which group they're in.

Double Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Attribution Theory

Explains how people interpret behavior as internal or external.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating internal traits and underestimating situational factors.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to fit group norms.

Asch Conformity Study

Showed people conform to group pressure even when wrong.

Obedience

Following orders from authority figures.

Milgram Obedience Study

Demonstrated people obey authority even when harming others.

Zimbardo - Stanford Prison Study

Showed how roles and environment influence behavior.

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort when working in a group.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to impulsive behavior.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides rational decision-making.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations cause behaviors that make the expectation come true.

Altruism

Selfless concern for others.

Darley & Latané / Kitty Genovese

Bystander effect: people are less likely to help in groups.

Cults (Zimbardo)

Groups using psychological control, isolation, and obedience.

Jonestown

Mass suicide led by cult leader Jim Jones (1978).

Structuralism

Focused on breaking consciousness into basic elements.

Functionalism

Focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

Stream of Consciousness

Continuous flow of thoughts (William James).

Conscious

Awareness of thoughts and environment.

Unconscious

Thoughts and desires outside awareness.

Theories of Sleep

Restoration, memory consolidation, evolutionary protection.

Sleep Cycle Length

About 90 minutes.

Dreams and Memory

Dreams help process and consolidate memories.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement; vivid dreaming, brain highly active.

nREM Sleep

Non-REM sleep; includes deep sleep stages.

EEG Patterns (Brain Waves)

Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta waves.

Circadian Rhythms

- 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep.

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, night terrors, sleepwalking.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter consciousness (stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens).

Hypnosis

A state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility.

Theories of Hypnosis

Dissociation theory and social-cognitive theory.

DEVELOPMENT

A process of improvement in the material conditions of people through the diffusion of knowledge and technology.

Teratogen

Harmful substance affecting prenatal development.

Maturation

Biological growth processes are independent of experience.

Piaget's Theory of Development

Cognitive development occurs in stages.

Sensorimotor Stage

Learning through senses and actions (0-2).

Preoperational Stage

Symbolic thinking, egocentrism (2-7).

Concrete Operational Stage

Logical thinking about concrete events (7-11).

Formal Operational Stage

Abstract and hypothetical thinking (12+).

Object Permanence

Understanding objects exist when unseen.

Conservation

Understanding quantity remains the same despite appearance changes.

Assimilation

- Fitting new info into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Harry Harlow Study

Showed importance of comfort over nourishment.

Critical Period

Limited time when certain development must occur.

Imprinting

Early attachment formed shortly after birth.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Lifespan stages based on social conflict.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits appearing at puberty.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Moral reasoning develops in stages.

Preconventional

Morality based on punishment/reward.

Conventional

Morality based on social rules and approval.

Postconventional

Morality based on universal principles.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved.

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving and reasoning ability.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained from experience.

Aging

Physical and cognitive changes over time.

Social Clock

Cultural expectations for life events.

Alzheimer's

Progressive neurological disorder causing memory loss.