Unit 1 - Memory

encoding (info-processing model)

(memory process one) the process of getting info into the memory system

computer analogy - saving stuff into a hardrive or the cloud

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info

storage (info-processing model)

(memory process 2) the process of retaining encoded info over time

computer analogy - the fact that info is stored on that hardrive until you access it

retrieval (info-processing model)

the process of getting info out of memory storage

computer analogy - accessing that stored info

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

(humans opposite of computers which process things sequentially)

sensory memory (sensory register) (SPERLING)

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system (better attention, better storage)

first stage of storage that feeds our active working memory. includes iconic and echoic memory

duration - few seconds

capacity - large

short-term memory (stm) (MILLER)

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the info is stored or forgotten

duration - 10-12 sec (20 with repetition)

capacity - 7 ± 2

long-term memory (ltm)

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

duration - years

capacity - unlimited

working memory (BADDELEY)

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of info retrieved from long-term memory

connectionism

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

“neurons that fire together, wire together”

explicit memory (aka declarative memory)

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

(when smth necessitates our conscious effort and attention to commit into memory)

ex) studying for a test, memorizing a poem, learning to fix your transmission… etc.

the way we encode explicit memories

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

time - you unintentionally note the sequence of events throughout your day

space - while studying, you incidentally memorize where certain info is on the page

frequency - sometimes memorizing how many times smth happened; a certain song, person, etc.

implicit memory (aka non-declarative)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory (implicit memory)

learning by action (automatic)

ex) riding a bike, getting bit by a dog → later in life anxious around dogs

iconic memory (sensory memory)

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory (sensory memory)

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds

ex) if someone asks you what they said and you repeat the last phrase, word for word, + not interpreting the meaning

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yeild better long-term rettention than achieved through massed study/practice

(opposite - massed learning is when you study everything at one time)

peg-word

(mnemonic) a memory aid that involves linking words with numbers

method of loci

(mnemonic) method of memory in which items are turned into mental images and associated time or place

ex) using your hand to memorize the sequence of planets, memorizing a card deck by associating them to a room in your house or pictures

testing effect (aka retrieval practice effect, test-enhanced learning)

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic memory

(conscious memory system) explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

(conscious memory system) explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

a temporal-lobe neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage

right → visual designs + locations

left → verbal info

semantic + episodic memory

memory consolidation

the neural storage of long-term memory

flashbulb memory

(long-term memory) a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment/event

ex) the day we got out of school bc of covid

long-term potentiation (aka LTP)

an increase in a cell’s (synapse’s) firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

ex) you don’t remember what happened right before getting knocked out bc you didn’t process

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory (thus predisposing one’s perception/memory/response)

(a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how ppl respond to a subsequent stimulus)

ex) when presented with the color yellow, you will be more likely to recall yellow objects

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific info bc of insufficient encoding of the info for storage in LTM

(when you don’t encode, you don’t remember - much of what you don’t notice, you fail to encode)

ex) drawing the apple logo wrong even if you’ve seen it a million times

proactive interference (aka forward act)

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

ex) calling s/o by ex’s name

retroactive interference (aka backward act)

the backward-acting disruptive effect pf newer learning on the recall of old info

ex) grocery list remembering before/after a convo

repression (FREUD)

(psychoanalytic theory) the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect (LOFTUS)

occurs when misleading info has distorted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia (aka source misattribution)

faulty memory of how, when, or where info was learned or imagined

deja vu

that eerie sense that “i’ve experienced this before”. cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

maintenance rehearsal

repeating info to memorize it

ex) repeating a phone number over and over until you remember it

elaborative rehearsal

memory and learning technique making connections between new info and already learned info

ex) meet someone named sandy, think of a beach when remembering them

stroop test

presents incongruent info to subjects by having the color of a word different from the word printed

cocktail party effect

brain’s ability to focus on one’s auditory on particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli

ex) being able to focus on your convo with another person in a loud restaurant or at a party

eidetic memory

ability to vividly recall info you were only shown for a short time

(a rare ability in some ppl to recall images and sounds after short exposure)

semantic encoding

the process of converting sensory input into meaningful LTM by associating new info with already learned info

acoustic encoding

the process of remembering and comprehending smth you hear

visual encoding

the process of remembering visual images

self-reference effect

the tendency for ppl to better remember info when it has been encoded in reference to self

frontal lobes

brain area located at the front, behind the forehead (on each side)

left - cognitive selection driven by the content of working memory and for context-dependent behavior

right - cognitive selection driven by the external environment and for context independent behavior

cerebellum

plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement; facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

receive input from cortex

amygdala

two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters

• create stress hormones

• emotions

• stronger emotions = stronger memories

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

retention curve (EBBINGHAUS)

shows that the recall of info drops below 50% within an hour and to 25% within two days

more practice = less time needed to practice (more retention)

relearning time decreases when the amount of practice increases

context-dependent memory

based on the context of our situation, we are more likely to recall from that same context

(ex: info is optimally remembered when it is recalled in the same place in which it was initially learned)

state-dependent memory

you recall info more easily when you are in the same state as when you initially learned it

ex: sober remembers sober, drunk remembers drunk

rosy retrospection

the tendency to recall the past more fondly than the present, all else be equal

von restorff effect

predicts that when similar objects are present, the one that differs from the rest is most likely to stick out

storage decay

how information stored in the brain eventually fades

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve - quickly forgetting what we learned and then it starts to plateau

retrieval failure

when info in long term memory cannot be accessed

retrospective memory

memory of people, words, or events encountered in the past

(ex - someone’s wedding day)

prospective memory

ability to remember to carry out actions intended for the future

(ex - “i have to take out the trash tonight”)

schema

an organized group of past experiences and associations, which become active depending on context to help inform decisions and make predictions

(ex - if you remember going to a new restaurant, you may not actually remember reading the menu, but your knowledge for restaurant dining can fill this info in)

ex - professor office photo

confabulation

a type of memory error in which gaps in a person’s memory are unconsciously filled with fabricated, misinterpreted, or distorted information

(ex - brian williams unintentially told a fake story about how his helicopter was hit whilst he faught for the military 13 years back but he wasn’t in the helicopter that was hit)

george miller

theorized short-term capacity of humans (7± 2)

alan baddeley

proposed a more complex, modular model of short-term memory that characterizes it as “working memory”

george sperling

demonstrated sensory memory in a series of experiments in which he flashed a grid of nine letters, three rows and three columns, to participants for 1/20th of a second

hermann ebbinghaus

first person to conduct scientific studies on forgetting

retention curve / forgetting curve

sigmund freud

founder of psychoanalysis

proposed the first complete theory of personality: repression

elizabeth loftus

researcher of the misinformation effect

has shown that reconstructive distortions show up frequently in eyewitness testimonies

atkinson-shiffrin’s 3-stage processing model

1. we first record to-be remembered info such as a fleeting sensory memory

2. from there, we process info into short-term memory, where we encode it thru rehearsal

3. finally, info move into long-term memory for later retrieval