Developmental Neuroscience and Cognitive Theories: Brain Regions, Neuroplasticity, and Piaget's Stages

What are the 4 major brain regions and their functions?

Frontal (planning, decision-making); Parietal (sensory integration); Temporal (auditory, memory); Occipital (visual processing).

What are the structures and functions of a neuron?

Dendrites (receive signals); Axon (sends signals); Soma (processes signals).

What is the difference between gray matter and white matter?

Gray matter (cortex, contains neuron cell bodies); White matter (inner brain, contains myelinated axons for connectivity).

What does the maturational theory overview state?

Brain undergoes normal structural/functional changes from fertilization to early adulthood; explains cognitive/emotional development via 6 processes.

What is neural tube formation and when does it occur?

2 weeks post-conception; inner tube becomes brain/spinal cord; outer becomes peripheral nerves.

What is proliferation/neurogenesis?

Neuron formation post-neural tube; mostly complete by birth; overproduces for cell death.

What happens during the migration process in brain development?

Neurons travel to correct positions from inner to outer brain layers; from 9 weeks post-conception to shortly after birth.

What occurs during differentiation/neural branching?

Neurons specialize, grow axons/dendrites, form synapses; major in first 2 years; peak: 40,000 synapses/second around age 1.

What is myelination and when is it mostly complete?

Glial cells wrap axons in myelin sheath for faster impulses; mostly complete by age 2.

What is pruning in brain development?

Removes excess synapses (up to 50% in some areas); from age 2 to end of puberty; increases brain efficiency ('use it or lose it').

What is a key note on maturational processes?

Neurogenesis/migration mostly post-birth; synaptogenesis, myelination, pruning lifelong.

How do timing differences in brain regions affect development?

Processes vary by region; matches cognitive skill timelines; dependent on early experiences (e.g., language needs rich environment).

What does synapse formation dependency rely on?

Relies on early experiences.

What is the neuroplasticity theory overview?

Brain changes structure/function; focuses on neural networks (neuron groups for functions).

What is synaptic plasticity?

Changes at synapses; includes synaptogenesis (formation), long-term potentiation (strengthening via more synapses/NT/receptors), pruning (removal of unused).

What evidence supports neuroplasticity?

Healthy areas take over damaged (PET/fMRI); functional shifts (PET/fMRI); gray matter changes with tasks (repeated MRI).

How do the maturational and neuroplasticity theories relate?

Complementary; maturational: broad patterns; neuroplasticity: specific synapse changes.

What are the brain imaging techniques?

5 types (e.g., MRI for structure, PET for activity, fMRI for blood flow); show brain structure/activity.

What was the aim of Chugani 1998 study?

Investigate glucose metabolism from birth to early childhood for biological basis of cognitive stages.

What method did Chugani 1998 use?

Review of correlational PET studies; radio-labeled glucose for activity regions.

What were the results of Chugani 1998 for newborns?

High activity in brainstem (survival), limbic (emotions: amygdala, thalamus, cingulate); low in cerebrum (sensory/motor focus).

What were the results of Chugani 1998 for 2-4 months?

Increased cerebrum activity (visual cortex, temporal/parietal lobes); improved visual/spatial awareness.

What were the results of Chugani 1998 for 8-12 months?

Increased frontal lobe; complex behaviors like object permanence.

What conclusions were drawn from Chugani 1998?

Activity inside-out (survival first, thinking later); supports 'windows of opportunity'/critical periods; adverse conditions (stress, poor nutrition) may cause long-term issues.

What examples illustrate Chugani's findings?

Adult sight gain difficulties; Genie's story (language deprivation).

What was the aim of Gotgay et al. 2004 study?

Map brain development via MRI in ages 4-21.

What was the sample in Gotgay et al. 2004 study?

13 US children/teens; equal M/F; mostly late childhood/early at start.

What method did Gotgay et al. 2004 use?

Longitudinal; MRI every 2 years for 10 years.

What were the early results of Gotgay et al. 2004?

Increased gray matter (differentiation/synaptogenesis); peak varies: sensory/motor (8.5 yrs), spatial/language (10.5 yrs), prefrontal (11.5 yrs).

What were the later results of Gotgay et al. 2004?

Puberty onward: gray matter loss (pruning); prefrontal last to mature.

What conclusions were drawn from Gotgay et al. 2004?

Supports maturational stages/processes; regions mature sequentially matching cognitive development.

What was the evaluation of Gotgay et al. 2004?

Strength: longitudinal (within-individual changes).

What is a critical thinking point about comparing studies?

Both measure different indices (glucose, gray matter) but similar sequences; correlate brain/cognitive development; but no direct cognitive testing.

What is a critical thinking point about correlation versus causation?

Brain changes may not cause skills; could be environment, reverse causality, third variable, or coincidence.

What are schemas in cognitive development?

Mental frameworks for info; founders: Bartlett, Piaget.

What is the background of Piaget's theory?

Worked on Binet IQ tests; noticed young kids' unique mistakes; hypothesized different cognitive processes; based on observations of children; links bio growth to cognition; impacts education/criminal justice.

What are the core assumptions of Piaget's theory?

1) Development precedes learning (stages can't be rushed); 2) Active world interaction builds schemas.

How does schema adaptation occur in Piaget's theory?

Assimilation (use existing schemas); disequilibrium (failure leads to adjustment); accommodation/equilibration (modify schemas); learning from complex situations if developmentally ready.

What characterizes the sensory-motor stage?

Instinct-driven; motor/sensory experiences; accidental discoveries; object permanence ~6 months.

What characterizes the pre-operational stage?

Play/pretend; symbolic use; centration (focus on one aspect); irreversibility; no conservation; egocentrism.

What is the Concrete Operational Stage?

A stage from 7-11 years where children no longer exhibit centration/egocentrism and can perform mental operations on concrete objects.

What is the Formal Operational Stage?

A stage from 11-16 years characterized by abstract thought, deductive reasoning, and metacognition.

What is an example of a Conservation Task?

Equal water glasses poured into a taller one; pre-operational children say the amounts are different due to centration on height.

What is the Three Mountain Problem?

A task where children model mountains and pick a doll's view from photos to test egocentrism.

What is a critique of Piaget's theory?

While influential, it is oversimplified; stages are not strict, and environmental factors matter.

What does Vygotsky's Theory emphasize?

The influence of culture and social interactions on cognition.

Who are More Knowledgeable Others (MKO)?

Individuals like teachers, parents, or peers who possess more skills and can share knowledge and strategies.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

The range of tasks that a child can perform with help but not alone.

What is Scaffolding in ZPD?

Breaking tasks into manageable parts, demonstrating, providing feedback, and gradually reducing support as skills improve.

What is Piaget's view on the role of teaching?

Minimal; he believed in self-discovery.

What is Vygotsky's view on the role of teaching?

Essential; he emphasized social guidance.

What is Piaget's stance on biological maturation?

Primary; he believed stages of development are biologically driven.

What is Vygotsky's stance on biological maturation?

Secondary; he believed social drives influence development.

What are the educational implications of Piaget's theory?

Focus on age-appropriate challenges.

What are the educational implications of Vygotsky's theory?

Emphasis on collaborative learning and scaffolding.

What was the aim of Piaget & Inhelder 1956 study?

To determine the age at which children exhibit non-egocentric thinking using the three mountain task.

What was the method used in Piaget & Inhelder 1956 study?

A quasi-experimental design involving children aged 4-8 interacting with a model.

What were the results of Piaget & Inhelder 1956 study?

Children at 4 years showed egocentrism, while 7-8 years were generally correct.

What was the conclusion of Piaget & Inhelder 1956 study?

Children become non-egocentric by age 7, marking the start of the concrete operational stage.

What was a criticism of Piaget & Inhelder 1956 study?

It was complex and ecologically invalid, requiring multiple skills.

What was the aim of Borke 1975 study?

To determine the age of non-egocentric thinking using a simplified three mountain task with scaffolding.

What was the method used in Borke 1975 study?

Children aged 3-4 interacted with a turntable and practiced with various displays.

What were the results of Borke 1975 study?

42% of 3-year-olds and 67% of 4-year-olds succeeded with the three mountains task; simpler tasks saw 80% and 90% success respectively.

What was the conclusion of Borke 1975 study?

Younger children can succeed if tasks are simplified and explained, supporting Vygotsky's scaffolding more than Piaget.

What was the aim of Wood et al. 1976 study?

To assess the need for scaffolding by age for complex tasks.

What was the sample in Wood et al. 1976 study?

30 US children aged 3-5 years, mixed by income and gender.

What was the method used in Wood et al. 1976 study?

One-on-one interaction where children built a 21-block pyramid with tutoring as needed.

What were the results of Wood et al. 1976 study?

Success rates were 65% for 3-year-olds, 79% for 4-year-olds, and 88% for 5-year-olds, indicating younger children need more intervention.

What support did Wood et al. 1976 study provide?

Age differences align with Piaget's theory, and scaffolding aids learning as per Vygotsky.

What is the biological stress response?

A reaction to stressors that disturbs equilibrium, involving uncomfortable emotions and physical/behavioral changes.

What are the harmful effects of chronic stress?

Cardiovascular damage, reduced immunity, weight gain/diabetes, and digestive issues.

What are the brain effects of high stress?

Reduced gray matter and connectivity in the hippocampus/prefrontal areas, altered stress responses, and mood disorders.

What are the benefits of parental care?

Greater hippocampus volume, less amygdala reactivity, better verbal skills, and buffering against stressors.

What was the aim of Luby et al. 2012 study?

To examine the effect of maternal support on hippocampus growth.

What was the sample in Luby et al. 2012 study?

92 right-handed children aged 3-6, half of whom were depressed.

What was the method used in Luby et al. 2012 study?

A prospective quasi-experiment measuring nurturing through a gift-wait task and MRI hippocampus volume 4 years later.

What were the results of Luby et al. 2012 study?

Depressed children had smaller hippocampi; nurturing mothers resulted in a 10-20% larger hippocampus.

What was the conclusion of Luby et al. 2012 study?

Maternal support positively impacts brain development.

What was the aim of Luby et al. 2013 study?

To investigate the effects of poverty and caregiving on brain development.

What was the sample in Luby et al. 2013 study?

145 children from a depression study, including both healthy and depressed individuals.

What was the method used in Luby et al. 2013 study?

A correlational study measuring maternal care and income needs against MRI volumes.

What were the results of Luby et al. 2013 study?

Poverty reduced all brain volumes; nurturing mitigated hippocampal effects.

What was the conclusion of Luby et al. 2013 study?

Poverty harms brain development, but nurturing can reduce these impacts.

What is a limitation of Luby studies?

They overrepresent depression, limiting generalizability, and rely on a single interaction measure.

What was the aim of Finegood et al. 2017 study?

To explore the relationship between cortisol levels and cognitive development in infants from low-income backgrounds.

What are the definitions used in Finegood et al. 2017 study?

Basal: daily total cortisol; Reactivity: additional cortisol response post-stress.

What was the sample in Finegood et al. 2017 study?

1091 infants from low-income rural US families.

What was the method used in Finegood et al. 2017 study?

A correlational study measuring saliva cortisol at 7 and 15 months and cognitive development using Bayley Scales.

What were the results of Finegood et al. 2017 study?

Basal cortisol at 7/15 months negatively correlated with cognition; reactivity was positively correlated with cognitive outcomes.

What was the conclusion of Finegood et al. 2017 study?

Biological and social factors correlate with cognition, with high stress periods being detrimental.

What is a limitation of Finegood et al. 2017 study?

Correlation does not imply causation; it may not account for unmeasured variables.