ap env science unit 4

Convergent boundaries

Can result in the creation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

Divergent boundaries

Can result in seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Transform boundaries

Can result in earthquakes.

Plate boundary maps

Show the global distribution of plate boundaries and can be used to locate volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults.

Earthquake cause

Occurs when stress overcomes a locked fault, releasing stored energy.

Soil formation

Happens when parent material is weathered, transported, and deposited.

Soil horizons

Categorized based on composition and organic material.

Erosion

Soils can be eroded by wind or water, impacting water quality.

Top-down soil formation

Decomposition of organic matter adds nutrients, deposition brings particles, and leaching moves minerals downward.

Bottom-up soil formation

Parent material breaks down through weathering, forming small particles that combine with organic material to create soil layers.

Most fertile soil

Mature soil.

Temperature impact on soil

High temperatures speed up decomposition and weathering, while cold slows them down.

Agricultural erosion practice

Removing vegetation increases soil erosion.

Solution to erosion

Grass or cover crops keep soil anchored.

Salinization cause

Irrigation leads to salt buildup when water evaporates.

Water holding capacity

Varies with soil type and affects land productivity.

Soil particle size

Influences porosity, permeability, and fertility.

Soil texture triangle

Used to determine soil type based on sand, silt, and clay percentages.

Permeability ranking

From most to least permeable: Sand, clay loam, sandy clay, clay, silty clay.

Highest cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Clay.

CEC benefit

Holds essential nutrients like calcium for plant growth.

Balanced soil

Loam provides the best permeability and CEC.

Base saturation

Low base saturation requires more magnesium, potassium, and calcium.

Role of detritivores

Break down organic matter, recycling nutrients.

Role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms like ammonia.Major gases

Atmosphere layers

Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere.

Temperature changes

Troposphere and mesosphere decrease in temperature with altitude, while thermosphere and stratosphere increase.

Hottest layer

Thermosphere absorbs high-energy solar radiation.

Most dense layer

Troposphere, due to proximity to Earth and gravity.

Ozone layer

Found in the stratosphere, it absorbs harmful UV radiation.Cause of wind

Sun's rays at the equator

Most intense, creating warm, moist, rising air and low-pressure zones.

30° latitude air

Cool, dry, sinking air forms high-pressure zones, often deserts.

Polar cells

Driven by cold, dense air sinking at the poles, moving toward 60° latitude.

Coriolis effect

Causes the curve in global wind patterns like Westerlies and Trade Winds.

Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar Cells

Represent atmospheric circulation patterns globally.

Watershed definition

Area of land where all water drains into a common outlet.

Divides

Ridges or mountains that separate watersheds.

Large watershed

More land and water flow.

Small watershed

Less land and water flow.

Long/narrow watershed

Extends lengthwise, with narrow flow.

Circular watershed

Water flows outward from the center.

Steep slope (30°)

Faster water flow.

Gentle slope (5°)

Slower water flow.

Clay soil watershed

Holds water but drains poorly.

Sandy soil watershed

Drains well but holds water poorly.

Vegetated watershed

Slows runoff and reduces erosion.

Non-vegetated watershed

Increases runoff and erosion.Insolation

Sun's angle

Determines solar radiation intensity.

Equator biome

Receives intense insolation, creating rainforests.

30° latitude biome

Dry air from Hadley cells creates deserts.

Polar cells

Driven by sinking cold air and rising warmer air.

Seasonal changes

Caused by Earth's axial tilt and orbit around the sun.

El Niño

A climate pattern characterized by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.

el nino impacts

Disrupts normal weather patterns, causing wetter conditions in some areas (e.g., western South America) and droughts in others (e.g., Australia and Southeast Asia).

La Niña

A climate pattern with cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean

la nina impacts

Typically the opposite of El Niño, causing wetter conditions in areas like Australia and Southeast Asia and drier conditions in parts of South America.

Global impacts of ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation)

Both El Niño and La Niña influence global precipitation, temperature, and storm patterns, often contributing to extreme weather events.

High albedo surfaces

Reflect most sunlight (e.g., ice, snow).

Low albedo surfaces

Absorb most sunlight (e.g., forests, oceans).

albedo role in climate

Melting ice reduces albedo, leading to more heat absorption and accelerating warming (positive feedback loop).

( volcano ) Short-term cooling effect:

Sulfur dioxide forms aerosols in the atmosphere, reflecting sunlight and temporarily cooling the Earth.

( volcano ) Long-term warming effect

Release of greenhouse gases (like CO₂) can contribute to global warming.