UCSB ANTH 5 - Final Review - Winter 2026

Acheulian industry

Shift from (Oldowan) Mode I technology → (acheulian) Mode II 1.7 million years ago in Africa and Europe.
A stone tool industry characterized by handaxes and cleavers in order to butcher animals

Adaptation

Anatomical or behavioral “fits” between an organism and its environment as a result of natural selection

spe

Evolutionary process by which a single organism rapidly evolves from a common ancestor, resulting in diversely adapted species that fill all available ecological niches. This process often occurs when a species enters a new environment with few competitors, leading to varied traits through natural selection.

Affinal Kinship

Social and familial relationships established through marriage (affines), as opposed to consanguineal kinship, which is based on blood or shared ancestry

Altruism

Behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. (Usually due to kin selection and reciprocity)

Allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated (gene flow is completely interrupted between the separated groups)

Amino acids

Organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins and combine to form proteins.

Anagenesis

A mode of speciation defined as the gradual evolution of a single species over time within a continuous lineage

Arboreality

The biological trait of living primarily in trees. This lifestyle is a fundamental characteristic of the primate order

Aurignacian

An early Upper Paleolithic culture (≈43,000–26,000 years ago) in Europe associated with early modern humans, known for blade-based stone tools, bone tools, ornaments, and some of the earliest cave art.

Australopiths

Members of the hominin group, which encompasses modern humans, extinct human species, and all immediate ancestors. Includes species characterized by smaller brains, body mass and skeletal anatomy that existed between 4 and 1.5 Ma

Balanced polymorphism

Two or more alleles are maintained in a population at stable frequencies because natural selection does not favor one over the other(s).

Basal metabolism (BMR)

The energy and organism uses for basic maintenance and survival

Behavioral ecology

Study of adaptive nature of human behavior as a function of its specific ecological context

Biological species concept

Defines a species as a group of organisms that have the potential to reproduce with one another and produce fertile offspring and that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

Biological vs fictive kinship

Family relations (consanguinity) vs marriage and social bonds

Bipedality

The ability to walk on two legs (key characteristic of humans and early hominins)

Blending Inheritance

Common 19th century belief that challenged Darwins theory of natural selection defined as the belief that the hereditary material from parents merged irreversibly in offspring creating “intermediate traits”

Canalized trait

Biological characteristic where the development of the phenotype is “fixed” or resistant to environmental variation.

Cladistics

Method of biological classification that organizes organisms into groups based on their evolutionary relationships and branching patterns (phylogeny) rather than morphological similarity.

Cladogenesis

A mode of speciation defined as the splitting of an ancestral species into two or more distinct decedent species

Coefficient of relatedness

(r) A measure used to define the expected proportion of genes shared between two individuals that are identical by descent (EX .5 in parent offspring and siblings)

Comparative method

Analytical tool used to test hypotheses about the origins, functions and adaptive significance of biological and behavioral traits.

Convergent evolution

Occurs when unrelated organisms evolve similar traits.

Cooperative breeding

Social system in which individuals other than the biological parents assist in the care of offspring.

Crossing-over

Paternal and maternal homologous chromosomes exchange segments of DNA

Cultural group selection

Evolutionary mechanism that explains why humans engage in large scale cooperation

Culture

Information acquired by individuals via social learning, human culture differs due to its cumulative nature.

Cumulative culture

Humans utilize social learning to accumulate knowledge over many generations.

DNA nucleotides

The building blocks of DNA: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

Dementia and APOE4

APOE4 is the strongest genetic predictor of Alzheimer’s

Dental formula

Shorthand that shows the number of each type of tooth in the upper and lower quadrants of the mouth (incisors, canines, premolars, molars)

Developmental mismatch

Traits shaped by past environments become maladaptive in modern environments

Diploid / haploid

Diploid (2n): two sets of chromosomes (most body cells)

Haploid (n): one set of chromosomes (gametes)

Discontinuous variation

Traits that fall into distinct categories (e.g. blood type)

Dizygotic / monozygotic twins

Dizygotic: fraternal twins from two eggs

Monozygotic: identical twins from one egg

Dominance

When one allele masks the expression of another allele

Gene x environment (GxE)

When the effect of a gene depends on environmental conditions

Ecology

Climate, resource availability, geography and the social behaviors of others that influence human strategies

Epigenetics

The study of heritable changes in gene expression occurring through chemical marks without altering the underlying DNA sequence

Eukaryotes

Complex organisms like animals, plants, fungi whose cells contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

Evolutionary medicine

A field that applies evolutionary theory to understand why we get sick

Evolutionary psychology

The study of universal psychological mechanisms that evolved as adaptations to solve recurring problems in ancestral environments

Exons / Introns

Exons are the DNA sequences that code for proteins

Introns are non coding regions located between exons

F0, F1, F2

Shorthand for generations

F0: founding population

F1: first gen

F2: second gen

Folivore

A primate specialized in eating leaves (complex digestive system or specialized teeth)

Foramen Magnum

The hole at the base of the skull where the spinal cord enters; its position indicates whereto a species was bipedal or quadrupedal

Fossil

The preserved remains of ancient organisms found in rock strata

Frugivore

A primate specialized in eating fruit (medium size body and medium energy abundance)

Gamete

Haploid germ cells (egg and sperm)

Gene

A specific sequence of DNA that provides instructions to create a functional product, usually a protein

Gene flow

The exchange of genetic material between populations through migration and interbreeding

Gene frequency

The proportion of a specific allele relative to all alleles at a locus within a population

Genetic distance

A measure of how much two populations or species differ genetically from one another

Genetic drift

Evolutionary force where allele frequencies change randomly over time

Genetic variation

The diversity of allele and genotypes within a population, providing the raw material for natural selection

Genome

The complete set of genetic information or DNA of an organism

Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS)

A method used to find genetic variants associated with specific traits or diseases

Genotype

The specific combination of allele an individual posses for a particular gene

Genotypic frequency

The proportion of a particular genotype within a population

Grooming

A social behavior in primates used to remove parasites and build alliances and social bonds

Hamilton’s rule

(rb > c) The principle that altruistic behavior is favored when the benefit to a relative (b) weighted by relatedness (r ) outweighs the cost to the actor (c )

Haplogroup

A group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor used to trace deep ancestry

Haplorhine

The primate suborder with dry noses

Haplotype

A set of DNA variations inherited together

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Allele frequencies remain constant over generations, indicating no evolution is occurring

Heart disease

Prevalent in industrialized societies but nearly absent in active societies

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is due to genetic differences rather than environmental factors

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles at a specific locus (Aa)

Homozygous

Having to identical alleles at a locus (AA)

Hominin

The group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and our immediate ancestors since the split from chimpanzees

Homo ergaster

An early African variant of Homo erectus (1.8 Ma)

Homo floresiensis

Small bodied and brained hominin that lived on the island of Flores until recently

Homo heidelbergensis

A middle Pleistocene hominin considered as the common ancestor of modern humans and neanderthals

Homo naledi

A South African hominin displaying a mix of primitive and modern physical traits

Homo sapiens

Modern humans, characterized by large brains and complex culture

Homology

Biological similarities inherited from a common ancestor

Horticulturalists

Societies that rely on small scale grading and slash and burn agriculture for subsistence

Human nature

Collection of complex psychological adaptations and behavioral repertoires produced by evolution

Human uniqueness

3 C’s; cognition, culture and cooperation

Hunter-gatherers

Societies that subsist on wild plants and mobile prey, characterized by high mobility and food sharing

Hygiene hypothesis

The theory that modern lack of exposure to “old friend” pathogens leads to immune system mismatches and allergies

Evolution of inequality

Differences in resource distribution in societies

Insectivores

Animals whose diet consists primarily of insects (usually small bodied primates with high metabolic rates)

Independent assortment

Mendel’s law stating that alleles for different traits are distributed to gametes independently of one another

Inclusive fitness

The total reproductive success of an individual, including their own offspring and the success of relatives they help

Knapping

The process of manufacturing stone tools using a hammerstone

Lactase persistence

The evolved ability for adults to digest milk

Lactose intolerance

The ability to digest milk is lost after weaning

Evolution of language

Unique human recombinatorial communication that facilitates complex social learning and the transmission of culture

Levallois technique

Advanced stone-tool flaking method used in the Middle Paleolithic.

Linkage disequilibrium

A non random association of alleles at different loci, indicating they are inherited together

Locus

The specific physical location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome

Loneliness

Evolutionary mismatch condition arising when modern social isolation conflicts with ancestral needs for high social density

Lordosis

The inward curator of the lower lumbar (spine) which is an anatomical adaptation for bipedality

Mandible / Maxilla

The lower jaw - (mandible) and upper jaw - (maxilla)

Mating effort / parenting effort

The trade-off between energy spent acquiring new mates and energy spent raising existing offspring

Mate guarding

A behavioral strategy used to prevent a partner from mating with other individuals to ensure paternity

Mating system

The pattern of mating behavior in a population (monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, or polygynandry)

Matrilineage

A social group of line of descent traced through the female line