Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

Height and weight growth

2-3 inches and 4-5 pounds per year

Average height and weight by age 6

Average 45 inches tall, 45 pounds

Body proportions changes

More adult-like proportions; head-to-body ratio decreases; legs grow proportionally longer; waist-to-hip definition increases

Sex differences in growth

Minor differences in height, weight, muscle mass

Brain size by age 6

Reaches 90% of adult size by age 6

Neural development

Continued myelination; overproduction of dendrites and synapses; synaptic pruning based on experiences

Environmental influences on brain development

Stimulation enhances brain structure; socioeconomic factors affect development; caregiver warmth promotes advanced brain networks

Lateralization

Processing of functions in specific hemispheres

Left hemisphere functions

Language, logic, reading

Right hemisphere functions

Emotional expression, visual-spatial skills

Handedness

Preference established during early childhood; 10% of population is left-handed; genetic and environmental influences

Macronutrients needed for children

Carbohydrates: Energy for activity and brain; Proteins: Growth, tissue repair, immune function; Fats: Brain development, vitamin absorption

Healthy eating habits

Offer variety of nutritious foods; allow self-regulation of portions; model positive eating behaviors; avoid food battles and bribes

Sleep needs in early childhood

10-13 hours per 24-hour period

Sleep patterns

Consistent bedtimes and wake times; napping decreases throughout this period

Common sleep problems

Fear of dark/being alone; bad dreams (13% of children); night terrors (1-6.5% of children)

Importance of sleep

Associated with cognitive functioning, emotional regulation, physical health

Importance of vaccinations

Prevent serious, potentially fatal diseases; protect children who cannot be vaccinated; contribute to community immunity

Common vaccines

Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR); diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTaP); polio, hepatitis B

Vaccination safety

Overwhelming scientific consensus supports safety and effectiveness

Effectiveness of measles vaccination

Before widespread vaccination in the 1960s, there were approximately 750,000 cases annually in the US; decreased to fewer than 200 cases per year with vaccination

Unintentional injuries

Accidents that can lead to harm in children.

Infectious diseases

Illnesses caused by pathogens that can spread among children.

Environmental hazards

Potential dangers in a child's surroundings that can affect health.

Risk factors

Elements that vary by geographic location, socioeconomic status, and access to healthcare, influencing health outcomes.

Preventive measures

Actions taken to reduce the risk of health issues, such as childproofing environments and adult supervision.

Gross Motor Development Ages 2-3 years

Climbs with increased confidence, ascends stairs with alternating feet, runs (initially stiff-legged).

Gross Motor Development Ages 3-4 years

Jumps with two feet together, pedals a tricycle, throws and catches a ball.

Gross Motor Development Ages 4-5 years

Stands on one foot, walks across a balance beam, hops on one foot.

Gross Motor Development Ages 5-6 years

Skips with coordination, performs somersaults, jumps rope.

Fine Motor Development Ages 2-3 years

Uses utensils like forks, turns doorknobs, manipulates simple toys.

Fine Motor Development Ages 3-4 years

Cuts with scissors (with supervision), strings beads, builds towers with blocks.

Fine Motor Development Ages 4-5 years

Uses scissors with control, draws recognizable figures, begins to tie shoes.

Fine Motor Development Ages 5-6 years

Writes letters and numbers, uses tools with precision, ties shoelaces independently.

Physical Activity Guidelines Ages 3-4 years

3 hours daily of physical activity, 1 hour of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, not restrained for more than 1 hour at a time.

Physical Activity Guidelines Ages 5-6 years

1 hour daily of moderate-to-vigorous activity, vigorous activity 3 times weekly, limit sedentary behavior.

Benefits of Physical Activity

Includes motor skill development, bone and muscle strength, cognitive development, and mental health.

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Age range: 2-7 years; characterized by symbolic representation, imaginative play, development of language, and limited logical reasoning.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing others' perspectives, common in the preoperational stage.

Centration

Focus on one aspect at a time, limiting understanding of conservation.

Theory of Mind Development

Understanding that others have different thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge than oneself.

False belief tasks

Tests children's understanding that others can hold incorrect beliefs.

Three-Mountains task

Assesses the ability to take another's visual perspective.

Development timeline of Theory of Mind

Limited understanding at age 3, emerging understanding at 4-5 years, well-established by age 6.

Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli

Memory

Encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Executive function

Planning, organizing, decision making

Development during early childhood

Increasing attentional control, improved working memory, enhanced information processing speed, development of inhibitory control

Example of memory development

When playing a memory matching card game, 6-year-old Aiden can remember more card locations and strategize better than when he was 3, demonstrating improvements in working memory, attention, and executive function

Autobiographical memory

Memories of personal experiences that develop during early childhood and are influenced by caregiver conversations about the past

Memory strategies

Recognition develops before recall, rehearsal strategies emerge, organizational strategies begin

Improvements with age in memory

Increased capacity, better retention, more efficient retrieval

Example of autobiographical memory

When Emma's parents regularly discuss past family events with her, asking 'Remember when we went to the zoo and saw the elephants?', they help strengthen her autobiographical memory and narrative skills

Vygotsky's key concepts

Learning occurs through social interaction, culture shapes cognitive development, adults and peers facilitate learning

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Gap between current ability and potential; skills that can be achieved with guidance

Scaffolding

Temporary support during learning that is gradually removed as skills improve

Example of scaffolding

A teacher helps a 4-year-old complete a puzzle by first demonstrating, then guiding his hand, then offering verbal cues, and eventually just encouragement - gradually reducing support as the child's ability increases

Rogoff's perspective

Children learn through observation and participation, valued in many Indigenous communities

Learning by observing and pitching in

Children contribute to household and community activities through guided participation

Contrasts with Western education models

Isolated, adult-directed learning

Example of learning through observation

Four-year-old Maya learns to make tortillas by watching her grandmother, starting with small tasks and gradually taking on more complex steps

Phonology

Sound system of language; children master most speech sounds by age 6

Morphology

Word structure and formation; understanding prefixes, suffixes, word roots

Semantics

Meaning of words and phrases; vocabulary expands dramatically (10,000+ words by age 5)

Syntax

Rules for constructing sentences; increasingly complex sentence structures

Pragmatics

Social use of language; adjusting communication for different contexts

Example of language development

Five-year-old Sasha not only knows more words than when she was three, but also uses more complex sentence structures and understands double meanings in jokes

Language Development Milestones

3 years: Uses 3-5 word sentences, follows 2-3 step directions, speech mostly understandable; 4 years: Uses complex sentences, tells simple stories, asks numerous questions; 5-6 years: Speaks fluently with few grammatical errors, uses the future tense, understands 10,000+ words, engages in extended conversations

Example of language growth

Three-year-old Leo might say 'Me go park now,' while at five he says 'I want to go to the park after lunch because I want to try the new swing,' showing dramatic growth in vocabulary, grammar, and complex sentence construction

Language exposure

Quantity of words heard and quality of language interactions.

Child-directed speech

Speech that is tailored to engage children, often characterized by a higher pitch and exaggerated intonation.

Socioeconomic factors

Factors such as access to books and educational resources, parental education levels, and time available for verbal interaction that influence language development.

Interventions

Programs such as early literacy programs, high-quality preschool education, and parent education programs aimed at improving language skills.

Emergent literacy skills

Skills that include print awareness, phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary development.

Supporting literacy

Activities such as reading to children regularly, providing writing materials, creating print-rich environments, and engaging in language games.

Unoccupied play

Random movements and observation typically occurring from birth to 3 months.

Solitary play

Playing alone and focused, usually starting from 3 months.

Onlooker play

Watching others play without participating, generally seen from 2.5 years onward.

Parallel play

Playing next to others with similar activities, typically observed from 3.5 years.

Associative play

Interacting while playing and sharing materials, usually starting from 4 years.

Cooperative play

Organized play that involves roles and rules, generally seen from 4.5 years.

Physical development

Development of gross and fine motor skills, coordination and balance, strength and endurance.

Cognitive development

Development of problem-solving, creativity, imagination, and language skills.

Social-emotional development

Development of emotional regulation, perspective-taking, communication skills, and conflict resolution.

Cultural differences in play

Variations in types of play emphasized, such as physical versus imaginative play, and preferences for indoor versus outdoor play.

Socioeconomic influences on play

Factors such as access to play spaces and materials, time available for play, and neighborhood safety.

Play as a right

Recognized by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child as a fundamental right for children.

Benefits of play

Includes natural context for learning, stress reduction, development of social skills, application of cognitive concepts, and physical activity and health.

Challenges of play

Includes decreasing time for play in schools, screen time replacing active play, and inequitable access to play opportunities.