A-Level Politics Year 12 Course

Democracy

A political system in which the ultimate authority rests with the people, who exercise their power either directly or via elected representatives.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote directly on policies or laws. Examples include the 2016 Brexit referendum (Leave 52%-48%) and the 2011 Alternative Vote referendum (No 68%-32%).

Representative Democracy

Citizens elect officials to make decisions, allowing informed, practical decision-making but risking elite dominance and voter alienation.

Participation

Beyond voting: protests (e.g., Extinction Rebellion), petitions, joining parties or pressure groups, e-activism.

Insider Groups

Groups like the BMA that directly influence government policy.

Outsider Groups

Groups like Greenpeace that rely on campaigns and media to influence policy.

Brexit 2016

High turnout (72%), clear mandate, but age, class, and regional divides highlighted societal polarization.

Political Parties

Organised groups seeking political power via elections to influence policy.

Functions of Political Parties

Representation, recruitment of leaders, policy formulation, government formation.

Major Parties

Conservatives (Thatcherism, One Nation), Labour (Social Democracy, New Labour/Third Way), Liberal Democrats (centrism, civil liberties).

Minor Parties

SNP (Scottish independence), Green Party (environment), UKIP (Brexit).

Funding of Political Parties

Membership fees, donations, state funding; issues with influence of wealthy donors.

Party Systems

Historically two-party, increasing multi-party influence since 2010; coalition governments (2010-2015).

Labour 1997

New Labour modernization.

Conservatives 2019

Brexit-focused campaign.

FPTP

Candidate with most votes wins; simple, produces strong government; disadvantages include disproportionality and wasted votes.

Proportional Systems

AMS/STV/SV: Fairer representation but can lead to coalition instability.

Referendums

Direct votes on issues; Brexit 2016, Scottish independence 2014. Enhance legitimacy but may polarize society.

Long-Term Factors in Voting Behaviour

Class (working-class Labour, middle-class Conservative), region, age, gender. Historical patterns affect election outcomes over decades.

Short-Term Factors in Voting Behaviour

Leadership perception (Ed Miliband 2015), events (financial crises, pandemics).

Media Influence

Newspapers (The Sun, The Guardian), TV debates (2010), social media (2019 campaigns). Shapes public perception and agenda-setting.

Labour 1997 landslide

Combination of long-term support, New Labour image, media strategy.

2019 election

Brexit positioning, social media targeting.

Conservatism

Emphasises tradition, hierarchy, pragmatism, and cautious reform. Values social order and stability.

Edmund Burke

Thinker who believed change should be cautious.

Michael Oakeshott

Thinker known for pragmatic governance.

One Nation

Variant of conservatism focusing on social cohesion and moderate welfare.

Thatcherism

Variant of conservatism emphasizing free-market and individualism.

New Right

Variant of conservatism with a focus on free-market policies.

Examples of Conservatism

Thatcher's privatizations, One Nation welfare initiatives.

Liberalism

Emphasises individual freedom, limited government, rationalism, and rule of law.

John Locke

Thinker associated with natural rights.

JS Mill

Thinker known for the harm principle.

Classical Liberalism

Variant advocating a minimal state.

Modern Liberalism

Variant advocating state intervention for equality.

Examples of Liberalism

Liberal Democrat civil liberties policies.

Socialism

Advocates equality, collectivism, redistribution, and state intervention.

Karl Marx

Thinker known for the concept of class struggle.

Beatrice Webb

Thinker associated with welfare state development.

Variants of Socialism

Marxism, Social Democracy, Third Way.

Examples of Socialism

Labour 1945 welfare reforms; New Labour Third Way.

UK Constitution

Set of rules and principles governing the state; can be codified or uncodified.

Sources of the Constitution

Statute law, common law, conventions, royal prerogative, EU law (pre-Brexit).

Features of the Constitution

Uncodified, flexible, unitary, parliamentary sovereignty.

Reforms of the Constitution

Devolution (Scotland, Wales, NI), Human Rights Act 1998, House of Lords reform, Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011.

Parliament

House of Commons: Elected chamber, primary law-making power, committees scrutinize government.

House of Lords

Revising chamber, limited veto, life and hereditary peers.

Checks & Balances

PMQs, votes of no confidence, committee scrutiny.

Prime Minister & Executive

Roles include policy leadership, cabinet direction, foreign affairs representation.

Cabinet

Collective responsibility, ministerial accountability.

Constraints on Prime Minister

Party, Parliament, judiciary, media, public opinion.

Separation of Powers

Theoretical separation; in practice, some overlap.

Judiciary

Independent; judicial review (Miller cases 2017, 2019).