Heterogeneity 1

Communication systems

Language includes various communication systems.

Human languages

Languages spoken by humans

Animal languages

Communication methods used by animals

Artificial codes

Man-made systems of communication

Secondary systems

Forms of communication that supplement spoken language

Sign language

A visual-manual language used by the deaf and hard of hearing.

Body language

Non-verbal communication through gestures

Glottolog 4.0

A comprehensive database that contains 7667 spoken L1s excluding sign languages.

Language family tree

A classification system that attempts to categorize languages based on their historical connections.

Linguistic typology

The classification of languages according to their linguistic features

Displacement

The ability of humans to discuss things that are not physically present or do not exist.

Prevarication

The capacity to lie or deceive using language.

Reflexiveness

The ability to describe and discuss the structure and concept of language using language itself.

Duality of patterning

The principle that meaningless units (phonemes) can be combined to form meaningful units (morphemes

Heterogeneity

The differences between languages in aspects such as word order

Idiolect

The unique language characteristics specific to an individual speaker.

Dialect

Language properties that are specific to a particular geographic region.

Sociolect

Language properties that are specific to a particular social group.

Ethnolect

Language properties that are specific to an ethnic group.

Individual differences in L2 learners

Variations in language learning due to factors like intelligence

Variation in L2 learners

Challenges arising from the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring individual characteristics in language learners.

Different L1s

The influence of a learner's first language on their second language production.

Different levels of L2 proficiency

Variations in language learning success based on the learner's proficiency in the second language.

Different degrees of attainment

The extent to which learners master the second language over time.

Transfer in second language acquisition

The influence of a learner's first language on their learning and use of a second language.

Positive transfer

When L1 and L2 share similar structures

Negative transfer or interference

When L1 and L2 differ significantly

Traditional view

Transfer.

Alternative approaches

Cross-linguistic influence: includes transfer

Language transfer

Using sounds

Negative transfer (interference)

If L1 & L2 have different structures → transferring these structures from L1 to L2 results in incorrect use & utterances might be incomprehensible.

Ringbom (1986) findings

Errors were more often traceable to Swedish than to Finnish because Swedish is related to English

Positive transfer phenomenon

When similarities help learning.

Negative transfer phenomenon

When they lead to errors.

Core claim of contrastive analysis

All (learner) errors can be predicted

Core claim of error analysis

All (learner) errors are a window into the learners state of development.

Interference errors

Errors that can be traced back to the L1.

Developmental errors

Errors that are typical for a particular stage of development.

Limitations of interference

Forms occur that are neither part of the L1 nor part of the L2.

Developmental errors examples

Examples include 'is in your picture the {Rutsche} blue?' and 'why you are here?'.

Predictable paths in learner speech

Learners' output (speech) often follows predictable paths with predictable stages in the acquisition of a given structure.

L2 structure absence in L1

What might happen if an L2 structure does not exist in a learner's L1?

Observation Swan (2011)

It might be misused or avoided completely

e.g.

dental fricatives for German learners of English or politeness distinctions like "du - Sie" for English learners of German.

Overuse of Structures

It might be overused (e.g.

Pro-drop Language

In Spanish: subject pronouns can be omitted because the verb ending already shows who the subject is. Learners from pro-drop languages might overuse or misuse subject pronouns in languages like English where dropping them is not allowed.

Surprising Observation on Frequent Structures

Some structures that occur frequently in a language are not acquired right at the beginning.

Surprising Observation on Structurally Different L2 Elements

Some structures that are structurally different from the L1 are acquired almost from the start.

Interlanguage

• a learner's own "dynamic linguistic system" (Pienemann 2011: 3) includes features from both the L1 and the L2

Regional Variety

A form of language which conveys information about a speaker's geographical origin via words

Intra-continental Variation

Linguistic variation within a single continent

e.g.

British vs. Irish English accent within Europe.

Intra-national Variation

Refers to linguistic differences within a single country

e.g.

UK dialects like Scouse

Accent

Differences in pronunciation.

Variation in Language

Variation in language is pervasive at every linguistic level.

Linguistic variable

Set of linguistic features that 'mean the same thing' but vary based on regional or social parameters.

Geographical area

A specific location where certain linguistic varieties are spoken.

Isogloss

A line on a map which denotes the boundary between linguistic features of vocabulary

Linguistic features

Characteristics of language that can vary among speakers

Syntactic variables

Grammar features that are spread across wider geographical areas than phonological variables.

Phonological variables

Pronunciation features that are more regionally restricted compared to grammatical features.

Standard English

A form of English that is often equated with 'well' in discussions about grammar.

Non-standard grammar

Grammar that is often perceived as ungrammatical or grammarless.

Historical reasons

Factors related to the history of a region that contribute to the existence of regional varieties.

Geographical reasons

Factors related to the geography of a region that contribute to the existence of regional varieties.

Social reasons

Factors related to the social dynamics of a region that contribute to the existence of regional varieties.

Language and community connection

Language is linked with its communities

contact and conflict can either weaken or strengthen linguistic boundaries.

Data for dialect research

More data is needed for dialect research on syntax compared to phonology because syntactic constructions occur less frequently than phonemes.

Variation in speakers

Variation is pervasive in every single speaker

no two speakers of any language have exactly the same set of linguistic features.

Gradual linguistic change

No sudden change in linguistic features

they blend gradually across regions.

Abstract categories

Labels like 'London English' or 'New York English' represent abstract categories that group similar idiolects from a region.

Linguistic boundaries

Boundaries that can be promoted or inhibited by contact and conflict within communities.

Standard Variety

A standard variety is generally one which is written

Non-standard (or vernacular)

A vernacular language has not been standardised or codified and does not have official status (sometimes no written form)

it might also have been acquired at home

as a first variety and is used colloquially in informal settings (Holmes & Wilson 2016)

Standard English - origin

emerged 'naturally' in the fifteenth century from a variety of regional English dialects. Area: triangle containing London

What is the standard language?

is always a particular dialect which has gained its special position as a result of social

What is syntactic doubling (double negation) in English dialects?

It refers to using multiple negative elements in a sentence

How is double negation viewed today in English?

It is often used by the working class and is stigmatized—not for grammatical reasons

Phonological variables for consonants

any linguistic element that has more than one physical realization in a given speech community.

/t/ phonemes or allophones

(t) variable.

Lexical set

= group of words that share a similar phonetic feature. Note: Name of the set provides no information about the way a vowel is pronounced! Provides a way of grouping together words that behave the same way phonologically. If speaker has /ɒ/ in stop

Are phonologies of regional accents the result of laziness or sloppiness?

No

What are the three types of differences between regional phonological varieties?

1. Systemic differences 2. Realizational differences 3. Distributional differences.

Systemic difference

occurs when one variety makes a contrast between words that is impossible in another variety (Watson 2021: 284).

Realizational differences

Varieties may share the same phonemes but realize them differently.

Distributional differences

How phonemes are distributed into lexical sets

Glottal stop

In some British accents

Vowel reduction

Vowel reduction (like turning /i/ or /e/ to [ə]) often happens in unstressed syllables → banana = [bəˈnɑːnə].

Patterned variation

The way people speak is characterized by patterned variation.

Social factors

Patterns in speech variation indicate the social factors that are significant in a given society.

Social functions of languages

Languages serve social functions and cannot be defined solely by linguistic features.

Defining a language

Both linguistic features and social and political functions should be considered when defining a language.

Sociolinguistic definition of language

A language can be thought of as a collection of dialects that are usually linguistically similar

Social class

A social class is a layer of society characterized by a specific amount of wealth

Social stratification

Social stratification implies inequality