Human Growth and Development CLEP

nature vs. nurture controversy

nature vs. nurture controversy

it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is more one than the other.

biologically built vs. environment

tabula rasa

this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of the nature versus nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on

Discontinuity or Stage Theories

Argues that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage involves a specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves on to the next stage. The developing person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively.

Continuity Theories

Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth process. Developmental change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills and behavior improve but they do not change in a qualitatively.)

Child Development vs. Life Span

Some theories of development argue that development is complete at the end of childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget are examples).

Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout the entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective).

universality vs. context specific

a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods (such as Piaget proposed for his theory)

Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are differences in development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist cultures versus individualistic cultures)

Collectivist cultures

Places greater value on the common good than individual achievement

Individualistic cultures

values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual goals

accommodation

by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme

assimilation

by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing scheme

Scheme

by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events

disequilibrium

what happens when a child understands the world in a particular way (their scheme) then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.

constructivism

Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema (organized patterns of thought or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the environment.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations (each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking instead of just acquiring more information over time)

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses.

By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for another thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was observed). Piaget.

preoperational stage

2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language),

are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives),

use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect),

use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects),

and think semilogically. Piaget.

concrete operations

7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object changing form is still the same object),

reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start),

conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance changes),

can group things into categories,

and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget.

Formal operations

12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he thought not all people reach this stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget.

information processing approach

a relatively new approach that uses the computer as a metaphor for the human mind (they use the two-store model of memory)

learning theory or the behaviorist perspective

describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a change in observable behavior (and behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment).

(key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura)

John Watson

founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth we only have these emotions: love, anger, and fear)

learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories).

Pavlov's classical conditioning

(sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning)

Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing a reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus.

{First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned

Second letter = stimulus/response}

Before conditioning: US -> UR

Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR

After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka going back to the original behavior)

higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS

Stimulus generalization

When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned) carries over to another related area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other bugs because they are so similar.

stimulus discrimination

only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC) response for the specific/exact stimulus (not similar ones like generalization)

Watson and Little Albert

The psychologist classically conditioned the infant to be afraid of a white rat, by pairing the white rat (a neutral stimuli) with a frightening, loud noise, causing the infant to associate the rat with the noise.

type R (response) or operant conditioning

by Skinner.

-Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior.

-Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior.

-Positive is introducing something.

-Negative is taking away something.

Shaping

A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more discriminatively (similar actions are reinforced in a way that leads them to the desired goal).

social learning theory/social cognitive theory

by Bandura.

changes in behavior are acquired not only by conditioning but also through observational learning (learning from models, which requires attention, retention, reproduction of the action, and motivation/a motive)

vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

seeing others reinforced or punished (respectively) for certain behaviors influences how the viewer behaves

psychodynamic/psychoanalytic personality theories

(most hold that personality is mainly unconscious) descendants of/based on Freud's theories.

(key people: Freud and Erikson)

Id, Ego, Superego

according to Freud's psychodynamic personality theory

-occurs at birth, Pleasure principle; unconscious instincts; irrational; seeks instant gratification; contains the libido

-Occurs around 6 months, reality principle; mediates id and reality; executive branch

-occurs around 6 years old, morality principle, personal consciences, personal ideals

libido

sexual energy in the id. Freud.

Repression

When unwanted/unacceptable thoughts are pushed down in the unconscious. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Rationalization

Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Reaction Formation

Behaving exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Regression

reversion to immature patterns of behavior (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Projection

Attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, motives, or shortcomings to others. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Displacement

Shifting unacceptable feelings from their original source to a safer, substitute target. ex. you are mad at our boss, but do not yell at your boss, instead you become angry with a family member when you return home (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Sublimation

A useful socially acceptable course of behavior replaces a socially unacceptable or distasteful impulse. ex. A person who feels aggression due to lack of control, plays an aggressive game of basketball with friends everyday. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Intellectualization

By dealing with a stressful situation in an intellectual and unemotional manner, a person detaches him or herself from the stress (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

denial

not admitting/acknowledging that a very unpleasant thing has happened (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Oral (birth - 1 year : mouth), Anal (1-3 years : potty training), Phallic (3-6 years : boy-girl-mom-dad-thing), Latency (6-11 years : none), Genital (adolescence : marriage)

Freud said that these develop personality depending on how they are dealt with. (the first three being the most important)

Erikson's theory of psycho-social development

(a psychodynamic theory of personality)

It says that people go through 8 stages in their life (each involving a different crisis). Depending on how the person deals with/comes out of each stage determines and develops their personality.

trust vs. mistrust (birth-1 year)

dependence on others, determining if others are reliable. Erikson.

autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years)

capable of self control, determining how you are allowed to exercise freewill. Erikson.

initiative vs guilt (3-6 years)

(in preschool) can set goals, determining if initiative is encouraged. Erikson.

Industry vs inferiority (6-11 years)

(school age) can reason and likes success, determining whether or not you are praised and taught to do so. And developing competence regarding various tasks. Erikson.

Identity vs role confusion (adolescence)

can reflect on identity and consider multiple roles, determining if you are willing to make an effort to integrate all of those roles. And understanding who you as an individual are (often influenced by the culture and time the person lives in). Erikson.

Intimacy vs Isolation (young adulthood)

ready to break away from family and form new intimate relationships, determining if you are ready to share yourself or not. Erikson.

Generativity vs stagnation (adulthood)

kids are gone - you're free, determining whether or not you are going to show interest in others/the next generation. (some people, who successfully pass this stage, take on a career that focuses on helping others during this stage) Erikson.

Ego integrity vs.Despair (Late adulthood)

reflecting on your life, determining if you are going to accept it all or not. Erikson.

Sociocultural Theory of Development

Argues that there is a bidirectional relationship between the child and the sociocultural environment. The child influences the people and environment that he or she interacts with, as much as those people and environments influence the child's development. (This is reciprocal determinism.)

(key people: Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner)

reciprocal determinism

(by Bandura 1986) An important part of social-cognitive approach to personality. It shows that (1) how people think, (2) how people act, and (3) what their environment is like all interact to influence the consistency of behavior.

Scaffolding/Guided Participation

cognitive support provided to a younger thinker by a more advance thinker (such as older children and adults)/older adults transmit the values and beliefs of the culture to children. Vygotsky.

Zone of Proximal (or Potential) Development (ZPD)

The difference between (actual and potential skills) the skills a child develops alone and those that can be learned/achieved with the help of someone knowledgeable. Vygotsky.

Lev Vygotsky

Russian psychologist who created an alternative cognitive developmental theory to Piaget's theory. Believe that Piaget was Not taking into consideration social/sociocultural influences of cognitive development

[Sociocultural Theory of Development = the environment influences the child just as much as the child influences the environment]

Ecological systems theory

(also called bioecological approach) by Bronfenbrenner. Describes development as taking place within the context of several systems. A child's development is affected by several contexts or systems such as microsystems, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem

microsystem

The immediate environmental conext the child experiences directly, like the family. Bronfenbrenner.

mesosystem

the interrelationships between events of different microsystems. example, home and school. Bronfenbrenner.

exosystem

the contexts that significant others in the child's life directly experience but the child does not. example, parent's work. Bronfenbrenner.

macrosystem

the larger cultural context in which all other systems exist. Bronfenbrenner.

natural selection

The name Charles Darwin used for the process through which species evolve over time. Some get traits that help them survive, but others die out.

ethology and evolutionary psychology

sees human development based on Darwin's theory of evolution

(key people: Konrad Lorenz and John Bowlby)

Critical period

(called the sensitive period in humans & by evolution theorists) a specific period in development when a certain event will have the greatest impact/must be developed.

sample & population

a representative subset of a population (in other words, less than all of the people from the population) & all of the people who fit under a particular category (such as all Americans, all high-school students with an eating disorder, etc.)

random sample

The term used for a sample of the target population that has been drawn using sampling technique that gave every member of the target population an equal chance of being selected (unlike biased sampling).

Experiments

A researcher manipulates variables to test theories, conclusions, and cause and effect relationships. Has independent and dependent variables. Researchers have direct control over the independent variable.

Independent Variable

Is the variable that is being manipulated (also the "cause")

dependent variable

The variable that is measured after the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment. it is the hypothesized effect in the cause and effect relationship being tested.

experimental group & control group

exposed to the cause & not exposed to the cause/normal treatment

quasi-experiment (field experiment)

the researcher cannot control some of the variables of interest in the study and (unlike in the experimental design) cannot randomly assign participants to treatment conditions. This is done in natural settings.

placebo effect & placebo & double blind study

different behavior because the subject knows they are being tested/getting special treatment & fake special treatment & both experimenter and experimetee are unaware of who has recivied special treatment

correlational studies

assessing the relationship between two variables (excluding cause and effect relationships). This can be done in natural or laboratory settings.

factors can have a positive, negative, or no correlation (rise in one factor corresponds in rise in another factor or rise in one factor corresponds to a fall in another factor, respectively)

correlation coefficient

(+/-)1, the higher the absolute value = more correlation, +/- indicates type of relationship, 0 is no relationship

Descriptive or Observational Research

Methods used to obtain accurate records of behavior without manipulating or controlling any variables.

(includes naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research/interviews)

naturalistic observation

studying behavior as it occurs in real life settings

must be unobtrusive, and have inter-judge/inter-rater/inter-observer reliability (the confirmation by more than one person of what is happening)

case studies

in-depth analysis of only one person (Freud used these a lot).

cross-sectional study

Comparing people who are at different ages from each other at a single point in time.

cohort

a group of people born during the same period of time (generation). Cohorts make it hard to tell whether it is a factor of age or a factor of differences in the periods of time in which the subjects grew up.

attrition

(also called subject mortality) The loss of subjects in a research study over time due to participant drop-out.

longitudinal study

Tracking the behavior of a single cohort over a long period of time

The biggest problem is that age is confounded with the time of testing (the changing times could effect the subjects instead of their age).

Sequential Research design

by Schaie. A research method that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal design. This method can measure the changes that occur with age, differences between people who are different ages at one point in time and can also quantify birth cohort effects. (Every 10 years a new cohort group, at the starting age, is added and/or replaces a former group that has been tested for several decades.)

Maturation

The natural physical changes that occur due to a person's genetic code.

Chromosomes

The term for the biological structure in the cell's nucleus that contains genes. There are 46 in each cell, and they are grouped into 23 pairs.

autosomes

the 22 pairs of chromosomes that both genders have (they carry genetic material that controls all of our characteristics)

Sex- Chromosomes

The 23rd pair chromosomes (x and y) that carry the blueprint for the offspring's gender. A female has an XX pair and a male has an XY pair (meaning that the father's cell determines the baby's gender).

Sperm & Ovum & Zygote

the male reproductive cell & the female reproductive cell & the growing baby cell after the cells have merged

Genotype

The term used to describe all of the traits carried in a person's genetic material

Phenotype

The term for the traits that are actually physically seen in an individual rather than the sum total of inherited genetic material

Genetic Counseling

A service available to help couples make decisions about child bearing considering their chance of passing on genetic diseases to their offspring

dominant and recessive genes

genes controlling our characteristics are either one or the other of these. the first kind (d) is stronger and more powerful than the second kind (r). (this is important to consider when parents might pass diseases onto their offspring)

they are paired dd, dr, or rr

-a d will always be expressed

-an r will only be expressed if it is not paired with a d (although the r can still be passed on to an offspring).

Endocrine System

The system of the body responsible for managing hormone levels in the blood stream

Pituitary Gland

Called the "Master Gland" this gland control other glands (including the thyroid and adrenal) in the endocrine system and secretes growth hormone. (It is controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain)

Growth Hormone (GH)

The hormone secreted by the pituitary gland which stimulates physical growth. In absence of this, you wouldn't grow taller than four feet. It also simulates the adolescent growth spurt.

Androgens

Sex hormones that control the development of sex organs as well as secondary characteristics (mainly in men)

testosterone

the male hormone that stimulates the development of male organs (instead of female ones)

estrogen & progesterone

the first is like the male androgens. these are produced by ovaries (which only females have)

Adrenalin

A hormone which is responsible for the body's flight or fight response. Helps the body prepare to respond to danger; however, It is also released when an individual experience stress. Has a negative long-term effect on the immune system of the body and is not good for pregnant women.

Germinal Period

The first trimester in prenatal development (pregnancy). The first two weeks. the placenta begins to form and the umbilical cord carries nourishment from and waste to the placenta.

Embryo Period

The second trimester in prenatal development (pregnancy). The second to eighth week of pregnancy.

most vital organs and bodily systems begin to grow and the amniotic sac (a fluid filled sac that surrounds the forming baby) protects and provides a constant temperature for the embryo.

major birth defects are often because of problems during this trimester.