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Heather Lucas - History, Attention, Cognitive Neuroscience (first half)
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Describe the design of Ebbinghaus’ memory experiment.
repeated lists of 13 nonsense syllables to himself one at a time at a constant rate and determined how long it took to relearn the list
used a measure called savings (original time to learn the list - time to relearn the list after the delay) to determine how much was forgotten after a delay
Describe the key findings of Ebbinghaus’ memory experiment.
smaller savings meant more forgetting while larger savings meant less forgetting
measured behavior to determine a property of the mind
What is a “paradigm shift” in the context of science?
the shifting of a system of ideas that dominate science at a particular time
Why can the Cognitive Revolution be described as a paradigm shift?
had a shift from the behaviorist’s focus on stimulus-response relationships to an approach whose main focus was to understand the operation of the mind
What does it mean when psychologists say that the mind is a black box?
inputs (stimulus) go through an unobservable process before producing an output (reaction)
What is the difference between a cognitive process and a cognitive representation?
processes are the various types of cognition such as perception, attention, and memory that produce representations such as letters, words, and directions
the operations of the mind VS the results of those operations
examples of cognitive processes
perception
attention
memory
examples of cognitive representations
letters
words
directions
Describe how Wilhelm Wundt fits into the history of psychology.
structuralist credited for the first psychology laboratory set up in Germany
Describe how Edward Titchener fits into the history of psychology.
structuralist credited for the first psychology laboratory set up in The United States
set out to categorize every sensation felt
Describe how William James fits into the history of psychology.
functionalist credited with steering psychology into the field of cognition
inspired a reaction against structuralism due to its scientific limitations and emphasis on representations
published Principles of Psychology (1980)
Describe how John Watson fits into the history of psychology.
known for the Little Albert Experiment
showed behaviorists that classical conditioning could work on fear responses
Describe how Ivan Pavlov fits into the history of psychology.
focused on classical conditioning
known for the dog salivation experiment
Describe how F.C. Donders fits into the history of psychology.
considered one of the earliest congitive psychologists
proved mental processes can be measured and identified through observations
Describe how Edward Tolman fits into the history of psychology.
credited for experiment of the cognitive map
What is the approach taken by structuralists to study the mind?
rejects the idea that the mind cannot be opened or that it is a black box
if properly trained, we could gain access to the contents of our mind
What is the approach taken by functionalists to study the mind?
focused on what the mind’s functions served
emphasized processes of the mind
What is the approach taken by behaviorists to study the mind?
believed that if it was not observable that it should not be focused on
What is the approach taken by cognitivists to study the mind?
infer the processes and contents occurring inside the mind
try to access the mind’s contents indirectly
According to structuralists, what are sensations?
basic elements of the mind that together determine experience
According to structuralists, what is analytic introspection?
technique in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
How was introspection used to study the mind?
people could supposedly learn to identify individual sensation
What are some weaknesses of the structuralist approach?
difficult to verify and replicate since it reported on private events
focused on the end product of cognition, not the process itself
emphasis on representations
Describe Donders’ reaction time experiment.
asked participants to push a button as rapidly as possible when they saw a light go on, then measured their choice reaction times by using two lights and asking the participants to push the left button when the left light turned on and vice versa
Why was Donders’ time experiment historically significant?
considered the first cognitive psychology experiment
proved you can identify and measure mental processes through observations
Explain Donders’ use of the subtraction method.
choice reaction time - reaction time = duration of the decision stage
What is the assumption of pure insertion?
all stages remain the same when a new stage is added
What is the assumption of additivity?
duration of all stages add together to yield the reaction time
What’s the problem with assuming you already know what the stages are?
likelihood that you don’t and there could be additional stages for the instructions of the tasks
What is classical conditioning?
pairing one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus
What is operant conditioning?
focused on how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers or withdrawal of negative reinforcers
Why did behaviorists favor classical and operant conditioning methods?
they produced observable stimulus-response relationships in behavior that could be studied
Describe the first experiment by Tolman used to document the existence of a cognitive map.
placed a rat in a maze and allowed it to explore, before placing it at Point A with food at Point B, the rat learn to turn right at the intersection to obtain the food. then, the rat was placed at point C and learned to turn left at the intersection to get to the food at point B
How did the results of Tolman’s experiment challenge the principles of behaviorism?
since the rat learned to turn left instead of its initial rewarded route (right), there must be something happening outside the stimulus-response relationships
What criticisms were leveled against behaviorism during and leading up to the Cognitive Revolution?
limiting science to observable things is not the best idea
argument that unobservable phenomena are studied in other fields so why not in psychology
difficult to account for creativity and diversity of human behavior
certain experimental findings were difficult to reconcile w/ behaviorism
What is the computational of the mind (AKA the information processing perspective)?
the operation of the mind can be described as occurring in a series or number of stages
What role did the introduction of the digital computer play in encouraging researchers to adopt the information processing perspective?
the mind is designed to take in and process information similarly to a computer
What does it mean to say that modern Cognitive Psychology progresses by “ruling out alternative explanations”?
running more experiments
CHAPTER 4
ATTENTION
According to Lavie’s Load Theory of Attention, what are two key factors that determine how well someone can ignore a distracting stimulus?
processing capacity and perceptual load
What is processing capacity?
refers to the amount of information people can handle and sets a limit on their ability to process incoming information
What is perceptual load?
refers to the difficulty of a task
What is the dichotic listening task?
where the left ear is receiving a different auditory stimuli from the right ear
What is shadowing?
repeating the attended audio or message from the dichotic listening task
Compare and contrast Broadbent’s Filtering Model of Attentional Selection with Treisman’s Attenuation Model.
share memory stage
filter VS attenuator
detector VS dictionary unit
Explain each stage of Broadbent’s Filtering Model of Attentional Selection.
input stage
the attended and unattended channels
sensory memory stage
holds the early features of both channels for a limited amount of time
filter stage
filters out the unattended message, leaving the attending message to go to the next stage and isolates the early features of the attended message
detector stage
processes the late features of the attended message, which can go into other cognitive modules as needed
Explain each stage of Tresiman’s Attenuation Model.
input stage
the attended and unattended channels
sensory memory stage
the early features of both messages are processed
attenuator stage
unattended message isn’t filtered out completely, just weakened in comparison to attended message
dictionary unit stage
contains words, stored in memory, each of which has threshold for being activated in which messages can then be processed
What predictions does Broadbent’s Model of Attentional Selection make about what information is most likely to be detected from an unattended channel?
early features from the unattended channel
What predictions does Treisman’s Attenuation Model make about what information is most likely to be detected from an unattended channel?
information from the unattended channel with low thresholds
What is overt shifts of attention?
shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes
What is covert shifts of attention?
shifting attention from one place to another while keeping the eyes stationary
What is attentional capture?
a rapid shifting of attention typically caused by an environmental stimulus
examples of overt shifts of attention
scanning a painting and shifting from one subject to another
examples of covert shifts of attention
looking at an object in the corner of your eye without moving your eyes over
examples of attentional capture
a bird flying quickly past you and your eyes following it
conversation being interrupted due to a loud bang behind you
Describe the Posner Precuing Task.
a crosshair located a the center of the screen w/ arrows flashing towards the right or left of the screen
participants were asked to push the button as soon as they saw the box flash onto the screen
How does Posner’s 3-stage “spotlight" model explain the reaction in a valid trial?
you receive a cue and it is correct
includes moving and engaging
fastest reaction time
How does Posner’s 3-stage “spotlight" model explain the reaction in an invalid trial?
you do receive a cue and it is incorrect
includes all steps of disengaging, moving, and engaging
slowest reaction time
How does Posner’s 3-stage “spotlight" model explain the reaction in a neutral trial?
you do not receive a cue
includes all steps of disengaging, moving, and engaging
What is hemispatial neglect?
disorder that affects attention in which people have a hard time attending to a side of their visual space (typically the left side) due to damage in the parietal lobe (typically the right side)
What is inattentional blindness?
failure to perceive information that is fully visible while performing an attentionally demanding task
What is change blindness?
difficulty in changes in scenes
examples of inattentional blindness
“look-but-fail-to-see” LBFTS driving accidents
examples of change blindesss
flickering when an image changes slightly
What are the differences between inattentional blindness and change blindness?
inattentional blindness because the attention is disrupted and is not engaged with something previously
How do expectations affect the likelihood that intentional blindness will occur?
the likelihood increases as expectations increases
What is the “binding problem” in cognitive psychology?
questions how different features become bound together in our conscious experience
What does it mean to say that attention is a “perceptual glue”?
it binds different features in our conscious experience
Describe the preattentive stage of Feature Integration Theory.
individual features are processed
features are analyzed separately and exist in the mind as free floating rather than bound
attention is not required
Describe the focused attentive stage of Feature Integration Theory.
features are combined into objects
free floating features are bound into coherent objects
attention is required
Describe how object features are represented in the preattentive stage.
free floating features
Is attention required for the preattentive stage?
no, it does not require attention
Describe how object features are represented in the focused attentive stage.
features are bound into coherent objects
Is attention required for the focused attention stage?
yes, attention is required
What is the difference between parallel processing and serial processing?
parallel processes all features of an object at the same time
serial processes features of an object sequentially
Which type of processing does each stage of Feature Integration Theory use?
stage 1: parallel processing
stage 2: serial processing
What are illusory conjuctions?
perceptual mix-ups between object features due to lack of attention
How does the Feature Integration Theory explain illusory conjunctions?
features in the preattentive stage exist independently from other features, meaning attention is required for binding a combination of features in the focused attention stage
What are the key differences between performance on a feature search and a conjunction search?
feature search can be used to locate targets with a single feature
conjunction search required the combinations of features to locate a target
How does the Feature Integration Theory explain the differences in performance between a feature search and a conjunction search?
the kind of processing determines how long the search time takes
How does increasing the number of distractors affect reaction times for each type of search?
feature search times increase do not increase with the number of distractors
conjunction search times increase with the number of distractors
CHAPTER 2
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE (EXAM 1 CONTENT)
What are some of the major functions of the occipital lobe?
where the visual cortex is located
intakes visual information
What are some of the major functions of the temporal lobe?
responds to complex stimuli
What are some of the major functions of the parietal lobe?
receives signals from the skin
responsible for perceptions of touch, pressure, and pain
What are some of the major functions of the frontal lobe?
receives signals from all the senses
responsible for coordination of the senses
higher cognitive functions like thinking and problem solving
Describe the cell body and its role in neuronal communication.
contains the mechanisms to keep neuron alive
Describe the axon and its role in neuronal communication.
fluid-filled tube of the neuron
transmits information to other neurons
the neuron’s “outbox”
Describe the dendrites and their role in neuronal communication.
branches reaching/extending from the cell body
receives information from other neurons
the neuron’s “inbox”
Describe the neurotransmitters and their role in neuronal communication.
chemical released when a signal reaches the synapse
makes it possible for the signal to be transmitted across the gap that separates the end of the axon from the dendrite
Describe the synapse and its role in neuronal communication.
small gap between the end of a neuron’s axon and the dendrites of another neuron
Describe the action potential and its role in neuronal communication.
electrical impulse that happens when a neuron is stimulated
signal travels down the axon to release neurotransmitters at the end of the axon terminal
Describe depolarization and its role in neuronal communication.
where the electrical potential across a neuron becomes more positive
going upwards to +40MV
Describe repolarization and its role in neuronal communication.
where the electrical potential across a neuron becomes more negative
going downwards to -70MV
Describe hyperpolarization and its role in neuronal communication.
where the electrical potential across a neuron becomes more negative than its resting potential
going downwards past -70MV
Describe resting potential and its role in neuronal communication.
no signals in the neuron
axon remains at -70MV
Describe the concept of hierarchical processing in the brain’s visual system.
progression from feature detectors to cohesive objects from lower to higher areas of the brain
What types of visual information are processed by the early visual regions?
lines
edges
feature detectors
simple shapes
What types of visual information are processed by the later visual regions?
faces
objects