Logic 2nd operation

Signification

The meaning for which a term stands.

Univocal

Identical significations.

Equivocal

Wholly diverse significations.

Analogous

Basically different but relational significations.

Supposition

The way in which a term used in a proposition stands for what it signifies.

Material Supposition

When a term is used simply to stand for itself as a term and not for the quiddity it is designed to signify.

Formal Supposition

Whenever a term is used to stand for a quiddity and not for itself.

Logical Supposition

When the nature for which a term stands is considered precisely as an object existing in the intellect.

Real Supposition

When the nature for which a term stands is regarded as realizable in singular existents outside the intellect.

Personal Supposition

When the term is used for those things which the nature signifies mediately.

“Man” immediately signifies human nature, but mediately the
individuals subsisting in it.

Universal Terms

Signifies a nature taken in its full extension.

Particular Terms

Signifies the extension of the nature man as limited indeterminately.

Singular Terms

Signify the nature with a determinate limit.

Divisive Terms

A term is used divisively when it stands for its inferiors taken one by one.

Collective Terms

A term is used collectively when it stands for its inferiors as taken together, i.e., as a group.

Term taken with personal supposition.

Terms taken with personal supposition can stand for natures understood to exist either actually or potentially.

Actual Existence

Propositions with particular subjects and contingent predicates may express the actual existence of the subject.

Nonsupposing Subject-Terms

Any subject that does not meet the demands of the copula of the proposition.

Unity of Terms

That one and the same term be used more than once is essential to valid argumentation.

What is a categorical proposition?

A categorical proposition has one predicate that is affirmed or denied of one subject.

What distinguishes a compound proposition from a categorical proposition?

A compound proposition involves elements that are propositions rather than terms and uses a conjunction instead of the verb 'to be.'

What is a simply attributive proposition?

A simply attributive proposition expresses the connection between subject and predicate without indicating the mode of the connection.

What is a modal proposition?

A modal proposition indicates the way in which the subject and predicate are connected and is true only if both its dictum and its mode are realized.

What are the two incompatible pairs in modal propositions?

Necessity and contingency, possibility and impossibility.

What does a necessity mode in a proposition indicate?

It indicates that it is necessary that the subject is the predicate, e.g., 'Man is necessarily rational.'

What does a contingency mode in a proposition indicate?

It indicates that it is contingent that the subject is the predicate, e.g., 'Not every man need be tall.'

What does a possibility mode in a proposition indicate?

It indicates that it is possible that the subject is the predicate, e.g., 'No man can be irrational.'

What does an impossibility mode in a proposition indicate?

It indicates that it is impossible that the subject is the predicate, e.g., 'Some man can be tall.'

What is an affirmative proposition?

An affirmative proposition is one in which the predicate is said of its subject, e.g., 'Every man is rational.'

What is a negative proposition?

A negative proposition is one in which the predicate is denied of the subject, e.g., 'No plant is rational.'

What is a universal proposition?

A universal proposition affirms or denies its predicate of its subject taken in all its extension, e.g., 'All triangles have angles whose sum is equal to 180 degrees.'

What is a particular proposition?

A particular proposition affirms or denies its predicate of an indeterminate segment of the extension of the subject, e.g., 'Some triangle is isosceles.'

What is a singular proposition?

A singular proposition affirms or denies its predicate of a determinate segment of the extension of the subject, e.g., 'Mary's mother is ill.'

What indicates the extension of the subject in a proposition?

The extension of the subject is indicated by auxiliary terms such as 'every,' 'some,' or 'this.'

What is the classification of the predicate in an affirmative proposition?

The predicate of an affirmative proposition must be classified as a particular term.

What is the classification of the predicate in a negative proposition?

The predicate of a negative proposition is universally classified.

What are the four types of propositions in the A, E, I, O classification?

A: Every A is B; E: No A is B; I: Some A is B; O: Some A is not B.

What is an example of an A proposition?

Every cow is an animal.

What is an example of an E proposition?

No cow is a plant.

What is an example of an I proposition?

Some cows are white.

What is an example of an O proposition?

Some cows are not white.

What is a singular A proposition?

This A is B, e.g., 'Bessie's udder is infected.'

What is a singular E proposition?

This A is not B, e.g., 'Bessie is not healthy.'

What is a compound proposition?

A singular proposition composed of several component propositions joined by a conjunction.

How is a compound proposition resolved?

It is resolved into component propositions and ultimately into categorical propositions.

What is an example of a conjunctive proposition?

Dolphins are mammals and they breathe air.

1. Dolphins are mammals.
2. Dolphins breathe air.

Conjunctive Proposition

involve a definite commitment to the truth-statusof each element: Dolphins are mammals and they breathe air

What distinguishes a hypothetical proposition from a conjunctive proposition?

A hypothetical proposition does not involve a commitment to the truth of its components.

If dolphins are mammals, they breathe air

What is a copulative proposition?

A proposition that asserts the truth of several propositions joined by 'and' or its equivalent.

Dolphins are mammals and they breathe air

What are openly copulative propositions?

Propositions that clearly involve several co-ordinate propositions joined by 'and'.

What are occultly (exponible) copulative propositions?

Propositions that do not clearly reveal their commitment to the truth of several coordinate propositions.

What is an example of an exclusive occultly copulative proposition?

Only the good die young.

1. The good die young and

2. None who are not good die young

What is an example of an exceptive occultly copulative proposition?

All students except seniors take physical education.

1. All students other than seniors take physical education and

2. No seniors take physical education.

What is an example of an reduplicative occultly copulative proposition?

As a citizen you are entitled to vote.

1. You are a citizen and
2. Every citizen is entitled to vote and
3. You are entitled to vote precisely as a citizen.

What is an adversative proposition?

A conjunctive proposition where one component is opposed to the main component.

Although contraries seem like pure and simple opposites, they might be false together.

What is a causal proposition?

A conjunctive proposition where one component provides a reason for the truth of the main component.

Humans are morallyresponsible agents, because they are possessed of free will.

What is a conditional proposition?

A fundamental type of hypothetical proposition where the truth of one proposition necessitates the truth of another.

What is a simple conditional proposition?

An assertion that two propositions are related such that the truth of one (the antecedent) necessitates the truth of the other (the consequent).

What is a reciprocal conditional proposition?

A proposition that asserts both components imply one another, meaning both must be true or both must be false.

A figure is a triangle if and only if it has exactly threeinternal angles.

What is the difference between inclusive and exclusive alternative propositions?

Inclusive allows for multiple truths, while exclusive allows for only one truth among the components.

Inclusive-Either juvenile delinquency will be curbed or ourstreets will be safe for no one

If juvenile delinquency is not curbed, our streets will be safe for no one

Exclusive
If and only if a number is even, then it is not odd

What does a disjunctive proposition assert?

That at least one of its component propositions must be false.

How can alternative and disjunctive propositions be reduced?

They can be reduced to corresponding conditional equivalents in meaning.

What is a categorical proposition expressed as a hypothetical?

A hypothetical proposition that has a categorical equivalent, such as 'If anything is a man, then it is rational' equivalent to 'All men are rational.'

Why is it preferable to use categorical propositions in argumentation?

They function more clearly as premises compared to their hypothetical equivalents.

What is the focus of propositional relations?

Propositions that are determinately related to one another, serving as indices for each other's truth-status.

What is opposition in the context of propositions?

The logical relationship between propositions that affirm and deny the same predicate of the same subject.

What are the three modes of opposition?

Contradiction, contrariety, and subcontrariety.

What is contradiction as a mode of opposition?

Exists between propositions with the same subject and predicate that purely deny one another; they cannot be true or false at the same time. (A,O; E,I)

What is contrariety as a mode of opposition?

The mode of opposition between two propositions that deny each other and less extended formulations; they cannot be true at the same time. (A,E)

What is subcontrariety as a mode of opposition?

Arises between propositions that do not deny each other but deny the more extended formulation of the other; they cannot be false at the same time. (I,O)

What is subalternation?

Occurs when propositions have the same subject and predicate with the same quality but differ in quantity; the superior (A or E) proposition is called the subalternand. The inferior (I or O) is called the subalternate.

What happens in subalternation when the superior proposition is true?

The inferior proposition is also true.

What is conversion in propositional logic?

The act of inverting the subject and predicate of a proposition to express the same truth.

What is simple conversion?

The exchange of subject and predicate in a proposition without any change in quantity.

No S is P converts to No P is S

What is accidental conversion?

The exchange of subject and predicate in a proposition with a change in quantity.

All S is P converts to Some P is S

What are legitimate conversions?

Conversions where if the original proposition is true, the converted proposition is also true.

Which types of propositions convert simply?

Universal negative (E) and particular affirmative (I) propositions.

Which Types of propositions convert accedentally?

A, E

Which Types of propositions can't be converted?

O

What is obversion?

The logical relationship between propositions that express the same truth by affirming and denying contradictory predicates.

What are the rules of obversion?

Change the quality of the proposition and negate the predicate.

"Every A is B" is obverted to "No A is non-B," and vice versa.

"Some A is not B" is obverted to "Some A is non-B," and viceversa.

What is contraposition?

A complex process involving obversion and conversion to exchange the subject and predicate while retaining quantity and quality.

What is the contraposition of 'All S is P'?

All non-P is non-S.

What is the contraposition of 'Some S is not P'?

Some non-P is not non-S.

What is the significance of the Square of Opposition?

It visually represents the relationships between different types of propositions.

What is judgment in the context of the intellect?

The act of the intellect affirming or denying one thing of another.

What is an existential judgment?

The act of knowing that something exists or does not exist.

Provide an example of an existential judgment.

This dog is. / This dog is not.

What is an attributive judgment?

The intellectual act of knowing that something exists or does not exist with certain determinations.

Where quiddative determination is affirmed or denied of a subject.

Provide an example of an attributive judgment.

This dog is fat. / This dog is not fat.

What is the second operation of the intellect often referred to as?

The operation of composition or division.

What occurs in an affirmative attributive judgment?

Two intelligible objects are united or composed by way of affirmation.

What occurs in a negative attributive judgment?

Two intelligible objects are separated or divided by way of denial.

What is the intellectual commitment in judgment?

The affirmation or negation reflects the way in which things are.

What are actually real beings?

Things which can exist outside the mind, e.g., 'Every human is able to talk.'

What are possibly real beings?

Things that could exist under certain conditions, e.g., 'Every human is able to talk, with all humans dead.'

What are beings of reason?

Things which cannot exist outside the mind, e.g., 'Some humans are blind.'

How does simple apprehension relate to judgment?

Simple apprehension is a truncated act of knowing, related to judgment as imperfect to relatively perfect.

What is reasoning ordered towards?

A Judgment

What is the basis for the firmness of assent in judgments?

Judgments can be certain or probable based on the confidence in their truth.