Studied by 3 people
Memory
A group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving information
encoding
Putting information into memory
storage
Retaining information in memory
retrieval
recalling or using previously encoded and stored information
levels of processing
Memory can also be conceptualized from a processing standpoint
shallow, intermediate, deep
what are the levels of processing?
shallow processing
notice some physical features
intermediate processing
notice patterns and a little more detail
deep processing
think about meaning
semantic encoding
process of actively relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already in memory (most difficult)
visual imagery encoding
process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
organizational encoding
process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
in the form of a biochemical (neurotransmitter) code
how are memories formed?
most influential memory model
information-processing
Atkinson and Shiffrin
who developed the information-processing model?
suggests that memory operates in a series of stages
what is the information-processing model?
sensory memory
can hold vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a sliver of time
short-term memory
can temporarily maintain and process limited information for longer periods
about 30 seconds if no distractions
how long is short-term memory?
long-term memory
has essentially unlimited capacity
can hold onto information indefinitely
how long is long-term memory?
function of sensory memory
Used to perceive the world as continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds; slightly overlap with one another
iconic memory
Visual impressions that are photograph-like in their accuracy but dissolve in less than a second
George Sperling
who studied iconic memory?
sensory memory
what stage of memory is iconic memory a part of?
auditory sensory memory (AKA echoic memory)
a brief memory that is like an echo
up to three or four seconds
how long does echoic memory last?
about 1/4 to 1/2 of a second
how long is visual sensory memory?
George Sperling; partial report technique
who first measure visual sensory memory and how?
eidetic memory
Ability to “see” an image or object sometimes long after it has been removed from sight with amazing specificity
children
who does eidetic memory primarily occur in?
echoic memory
Exact copies of the sounds we hear
about 1-10 seconds
how long does echoic memory typically last?
perfect pitch
what is an example of echoic memory?
maintenance rehearsal
Technique of repeating info to be remembered, increasing the length of time it can be held in short-term memory
short term, working memory
Provides temporary storage of information transferred from sensory and long-term memory
about 20-30 seconds
how long is short term, working memory?
if distracted
when does maintenance rehearsal not work well?
info loss may be due to
decay, interference from new or competing infod
decay
fading away of information
chunking
Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets as a strategy for increasing the quantity of info that can be maintained in short-term memory
the serial position effect
Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than the items in the middle
two parts to serial position effect
primary effect and recency effectp
primary effect
the tendency to recall the first items in a list
recency effect
the tendency to recall the last items in a list
capacity of short term memory can be increased by…
chunking
working memory
the active, conscious manipulation of temporarily stored information
Alan Baddeley
who publsihed the best-known model of working memory?
four main components, each can function independently
what are the features of the best-known model of working memory?
4 components of working memory
phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, episodic buffer
phonological loop
responsible for working with verbal information for brief periods of timevi
visuopatial sketchpad
where visual and spatial data are briefly stored and manipulated
central executive
directs attention, asks plans, coordinates activities, determines what information is used and what is ignored
episodic buffer
forms the bridge between memory and conscious awareness
working memory
what does social media pose a threat to?
long term memory
what type of memory provides quick retrieval with little effort?
explicit memory
A type of memory you are aware of having and can consciously express in words or declare, including memories of facts and experiences
implicit memory
A memory of something you know or know how to do, which may be automatic, unconscious, and difficult to bring to awareness and express
procedural memory
The unconscious memory of how to carry out a variety of skills and activities wh
implicit
what type of memory is procedural memory?
semantic memory
The memory of information theoretically available to anyone, which pertain to general facts about the world
semantic
what type of memory is the hardest to explain?
episodic memory
The record of memorable experiences or “episodes’ including when and where an experience occurred
episodic
what type of memory is fragile, can be influenced, and is at risk for the formation of false memories?
flashbulb memory
thought to involve the recall of very specific details or images surrounding a significant, rare, or vivid event
flashbulb
what memory is thought to be more vivid and accurate than normal memories?
gradually decays over time, emotionally charged but not necessarily more accurate than memories of more common events
what does research demonstrate about flashbulb memories?
flashbulb memory
what is this question an example of?
“What do you remember from when you heard about 9/11?
the encoding specificity principle
When conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful; You’re more likely to remember things if the conditions under which you recall them are similar to the conditions under which you learned them
self-reference effect
applying information to yourself
visual imagery
what enhances encoding?
Emotion, Motivation, and Personality
what plays a role in both storage and retrieval of memories?
dependent memories
Tendency to remember information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information
taking a test and remembering where the professor stood when giving the information during lecture
example of visual imagery enhancing encoding?
mood congruences
Memory is facilitated when physiological and psychological conditions are similar at time of encoding and retrieval. Retrieval is also easier if content of memory corresponds to present and emotional state
when you're in a positive mood, you’re more likely ro recall positive memories
example of mood congruences?
when the encoding and retrieval occur in similar contexts
when are context-depended memories easier to access?
Godden and Baddeley; learn list of words underwater and on dry land
who conducted the experiment for the encoding specificity principle and what was it?
the inability to retrieve previously available information
forgetting
retrieval
the process of accessing and retrieving stored information in long-term memory
retrieval clue
a clue, prompt, or hint that can help trigger recall of a stored memory
what demonstrates the difference between information that is STORED in LTM versus information that you can ACCESS
retrieval problems
priming
stimulation of memories as a result of retrieval cues in environment
Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)
An uncanny ability to recollect an abundance of detail pertaining to autobiographical experiences
remember almost every day of their lives
what can people with HSAM do?
interfere with other cognitive activites
what can intense recollection (such as HSAM) do?
focus on items that need your attention and it clears the way for new memories
what does forgetting allow you to do?
tip of the tongue experience (TOT)
involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it
one
how many TOT experiences per week?
first letter and number of syllables, produce words with similar meanings and sounds
whatcan people accurately identify about half of the time during a TOT?
90%; few minutes
how often and quickly of TOT experiences resolved?
one neuron is off-sync with others and all are required to retrieve information
why do TOT experiences occur?
first began to study forgetting by using nonsense syllables
what did Hermann Ebbinghaus do?
determine how much info was forgotten after different lengths of time
what was Herman Ebbinghaus’ goal?
Ebbinghaus
who created the famous forgetting curve?
how well the material was encoded in the first place, how meaningfuf the material was, and how often it was rehearsed
what does how quickly we forget material depend on?
encoding failure
never got into long-term memory
storage failure
memory decay
retrieval failure
TOT
decay theory
when a new memory is formed, it creates a MEMORY TRACE (a distinct structural or chemical change in the brain)
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