AP Biology AP Exam Review

Ways of regulating enzymes

allosteric effector

competitive inhibition

noncompetitive inhibition

cooperativity

Competitive inhibition

substance the enzyme by occupying the active site

Ways of regulating enzymes

allosteric effector

competitive inhibition

noncompetitive inhibition

cooperativity

Competitive inhibition

substance the enzyme by occupying the active site

Noncompetitive inhibition

substance inhibits the enzyme by binding to a location other than the active site and changes the shape of the enzyme

Ribosomes are manufactures in the...

nucleus

Rough ER contains

ribosomes

Function of rough ER

assembly of proteins

Function of smooth ER

synthesis lipids and hormones

Function of lysosomes

contain digestive enzymes to break down food and bacteria

Function of peroxisomes

break down various substances

Tight Junctions

prevents the passage of materials between cells.

characteristic in cells lining the digestive tract

Gap Junctions

narrow tunnels between animal cells that allows the passage of ions and small molecules

Plasmodesmata

narrow channels between plant cells

Characteristics of Prokaryotes

No nucleus

single DNA

smaller ribosomes

peptidoglycan cell walls

Forms of Passive Transport

Diffusion

Osmosis

Facilitated Diffusion

Reactants of Cellular Respiration

Glucose and Oxygen

Products of Cellular Respiration

Carbon Dioxide, Water, and energy

Where does glycolysis occur

cytoplasm

Net ATP produced in glycolysis

2

Pyruvate produced in glycolysis ( 3 Carbon molecule)

2

What does the Krebs Cycle produce

2 FADH, 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 CO2

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain

oxygen

Number of ATP produced in ETC

32

Where does the Kreb Cycle occur

intermembrane space of mitochondria

Where does ETC occur

intermembrane space of mitochondria

Reactants of Photosynthesis

CO2, H2O, and light

Products of Photosynthesis

Glucose and O2

Calvin Cycle

converts CO2 to glucose

Where does the Calvin Cycle occur

stroma

Where does the light reactions occur

Thylokoids

Another name for the Calvin Cycle

light independent reactions

Chromosomes

tightly coiled bodies of chromatin

G1 Phase

Growth

S Phase

Growth and duplication of DNA

Synthesis

G2 Phase

growth and preparation for cell divison

Prophase

Nucleoli disappears

chromatin condenses

nuclear envelope breaks down

mitotic spindle assembles

Metaphase

Chromosomes are distributed across metaphase plate

Anaphase

Chromosomes are separated into chromatids

microtubules pull chromosomes to opposite poles

Telophase

Nuclear envelope develops around each pole

nuclei appears

Prophase I

prophase of mitosis

synapsis

tetrads

crossing over

Synapsis

homologous chromosomes pair

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosomes spread across metaphase plate

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite poles

Prophase II- Telophase II

just like mitosis

Types of Genetic Variation

Crossing over

Independent Assortment

Random joining of gametes

G1 Checkpoint

if conditions are not appropriate or if the cell is genetically programmed not to divide it remains in extended phase

G2 Checkpoint

evaluates the accuracy of DNA replication and signals whether or not to begin mitosis

M Checkpoint

occurs during metaphase

ensures that microtubules are attached to kinetochores

Factors that influence onset cell divison

Checkpoints

Cyclin dependent kinases

growth factors

density dependent inhibition

anchorage dependence

Cyclin Dependent kinases

activate proteins that regulate the cell cycle

Growth Factors

plasma membrane receptors sense external molecules that stimulate the cell to divide

Density dependent inhibition

cells stop dividing when surrounding cell density reaches max

Anchorage dependence

cells only divide when attached to external surface like neighboring cell

Epistasis

one gene affects the phenotypic expression of another gene

Pleiotropy

a single gene has more than one phenotypic expression

Helicase

unwinds DNA helix

Topoisomerases

break and rejoin the double helix

removes twists and knots

Primase

initiates DNA replication

RNA primers

short segments of RNA nucleotides used to initiates DNA replication

DNA polymerase

attaches to RNA primers and begins adding DNA nucleotides to the complement strand

Leading strand

assembled continuously

Lagging strand

assembled in short Okazaki fragment

DNA ligase

joins Okazaki fragments

processes in protein synthesis

transcription

RNA processing

translation

steps of transcription

initiation

elongation

termination

Initiation of Transcription

RNA polymerase attaches to promoter region on DNA

unzips DNA in two strands

contains TATA

Elongation

RNA nucleotides are assembled on DNA template

occurs in 5-3 direction

Termination

RNA polymerase reaches a sequence that serves a termination point

Before a mRNA molecule can leave the nucleus, what must be attached?

5 cap

poly A tail

RNA splicing

Alternative splicing

RNA splicing

deletes the introns and splice exons

Alternative splicing

allows different mRNA to be generated from the same RNA

steps in translation

inbitiation

elongation

termination

where does translation occur

cytoplasm

Taxis

directed movement in response to a stimuli

Migration

long distance, seasonal movement of animals

polar

Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.

nonpolar

No partial charges. Do not mix with water.

Cohesion

Attraction between water molecules

Adhesion

An attraction between molecules of different substances

hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

catabolic reactions

break down large chemicals and release energy

anabolic reactions

build up large chemicals and require energy

carbohydrates

the starches and sugars present in foods; broken down to glucose to provide energy

sugars end in -ose

lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

phospholipid

a lipid that contains hydrophillic head and hydrophobic tail and that is a structural component in cell membranes

Protein

An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids and that is a principal component of all cells

primary structure of protein

sequence of amino acids

covalent bonds called peptide bonds hold together

secondary structure of amino acids

the folding of polypeptide chain as a result of hydrogen bonding between peptide groups along its length

tertiary structure of proteins

Three-dimensional structure of a peptide, results from hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions between residues far apart on the chain. Disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds can also add to the tertiary structure of the protein.

denature

A change in the shape of a protein (such as an enzyme) that can be caused by changes in temperature or pH (among other things).

phospholipid bilayer

Plasma membrane layers composed of phospholipid molecules arranged with polar heads facing the outside and nonpolar tails facing the inside.

protein channels

proteins in the membrane whose role it is to pass molecules that cannot go through the membrane

active tranport

the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.

passive transport

Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient

types of passive transport

diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

types of active transport

endocytosis and exocytosis

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one.

Receptor

on or in a cell, a specific protein to whose shape fits that of a specific molecular messenger, such as a hormone

intracellular receptors

receptors located inside the cell rather than on its cell membrane

extracellular receptors

receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane