Exam 2- Gen bio

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kinetic energy

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114 Terms

1

kinetic energy

energy of movement, breaking bonds

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2

potential energy

energy stored in the bonds

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3

law of conservation of energy

energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another

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law of thermodynamics

energy cannot be transferred from one form to another without the loss of usable energy

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total energy

unusable energy + usable energy

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6

enthalpy

free energy (usable G) + (entropy (unusable) x absolute temp)

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7

orient substrate

a way enzymes can lower activation energy by putting molecules in the right position to bond them

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8

induce physical strain

lowering activation energy- stretching bonds to be able to produce chemical reactions

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9

alter chemical charge of substrate

lowers activation energy

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10

negative delta G

free energy is release

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11

positive delta G

energy has been added

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12

what affects enzyme regulation

environment, factors and inhibitors

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13

environment regulation

pH and temperature

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14

factor regulation

inorganic ions coenzymes- carbon containing molecules prosthetic- permanently bound (hemoglobin)

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15

irreversible inhibitors

covalently bonds with enzyme and shuts off activity

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competitive reversible inhibitors

competes for the same active site with substrate

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non-competitive reversible inhibitor

inhibitor binds somewhere other than the active site, changes the shape of the active site so substrate cannot bind

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18

cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy

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19

oxidation

loss of an electron

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reduction

gaining an electron

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21

what do enzymes do in releasing free energy

helps to not lose as much energy to heat (stair graph example)

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22

redox reactions

one compound getting oxidized, one compound getting reduced

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23

two co-enzymes

  1. NADH

  2. FADH

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24

glycolysis

  1. energy investment phase

  2. energy harvesting phase

<ol><li><p>energy investment phase</p></li><li><p>energy harvesting phase</p></li></ol>
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25

energy investment phase

glucose is oxidized and an investment of two ATP molecules to result in 2 glyceraldehyd 3-phosphate and 2 ADP

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energy harvesting phase

4 ADP+ NAD+ (reduced)+ 2G3P ---> 2 pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 ADP

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27

how much ATP is yielded after glycolysis

2 ATP

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substrate level phosphorylation

taking a phosphate and adding it to something else (adding a phosphate from G3P to ADP to form ATP)

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steps of cellular respiration

  1. glycolysis

  2. pyruvate processing

  3. krebs/citric acid cycle

  4. electron transport chain

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pyruvate processing equation

2 Pyruvate + 2 NAD+ + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 NADH + 2CO2 -NAD+ is reduced to NADH

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31

krebs cycle equation

2acetylCoA + 6NAD+ + 2FAD + 2ADP --> 4Co2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP

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32

What does the Krebs cycle produce

4 ATP and lots of NADH

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NADH

a high energy molecule that can be converted to energy in a later process

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34

electron transport chain

a series of four protein complexes that couple redox reactions, creating an electrochemical gradient that leads to the creation of ATP in a complete system named oxidative phosphorylation.

<p>a series of four protein complexes that couple redox reactions, creating an electrochemical gradient that leads to the creation of ATP in a complete system named oxidative phosphorylation.</p>
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35

where does all the oxygen go at the beginning of cellular respiration?

in the electron transport chain

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36

ATP synthase

a system that pumps hydrogen back into the cell through an ion gradient to create ATP from ADP+ Pi

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oxidation phosphroylation

oxidizing NADH and FADH, electrons go down to phosphorylate ADP+ Pi to ATP

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how much ATP is yielded from electron transport chain

about 32 ATP

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ATP yielded from cellular respiration

about 36 ATP 32 ATP from electron transport chain, 4 ATP from glycolysis

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40

Two types of Fermentation

lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation

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41

lactic acid fermentation

pyruvate converted to lactate (cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, sour cream)

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alcohol fermentation

Pyruvate converted to acetaldehyde by pyruvate dehydrogenase acetaldehyde converted to ethanol by alcohol dehydrogenase occurs in some bacteria and fungi loses CO2

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fermentation vs respiration

goal: covert glucose into energy respiration: 32 ATP, needs oxygenfermentation: 2 ATP, occurs when there is a lack of oxygen

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44

Fermentation

Anaerobic- Life without air NADH transfers electrons back to pyruvate recycles NAD+ to be used again in glycolysis

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45

photosynthesis equation

light energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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46

autotrophs

produce their own energy

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47

heterotrophs

get energy from another source

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48

light reactions

converts light energy into usable energy (ATP+ NADPH) happens in the inner membrane of the chloroplasts in the stroma

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light independent reactions

uses ATP and NADPH and CO2 from light reactions to make carbohydrates

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chloroplasts

where photosynthesis occurs, 2 membranes and has its own DNA

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51

electromagnetic radiation

  • light

  • gamma rays

  • x-rays

  • infrared

  • radio waves

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52

Photon interaction with a molecules (scattered)

photon bounces off

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53

Photon interaction with a molecules (transmitted)

photon passes through

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54

Photon interaction with a molecules (energy is absorbed)

molecule gains more energy, moves electrons out to another shell to hey to a higher energy level

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pigments

absorb visible light

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56

once molecule raised to another energy level...

  1. releases energy as heat/ light

  2. transfers molecules to another molecule

  3. used for a chemical reaction

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absorption spectrum

knowt flashcard image
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58

Non- cyclic electron transport chain

-occurs in the inner membrane of the chloroplast

  • photosystem II absorbs so much light it gives electrons to another molecule (oxidizing agent) takes e- from H2O to make O2

  • then given to photosystem I which is also absorbing light

  • electron is eventually sent to where NADP+ is reduced to NADPH

  • hydrogen is pumped back in through ATP synthase to produce ATP

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59

cyclic transport chain

  • only uses photosystem I

  • e- always goes back to photosystem I

  • can only produce ATP

  • ATP synthase can still pump H+ back in to produce ATP

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60

Calvin cycle reactions

  1. CO2 fixation

  2. CO2 reduction

  3. regeneration of RUBP

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CO2 fixation

RuBP + CO2 = 2(3PG) Plants fix atmospheric carbon to form organic compounds

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rubisco

enzyme used in CO2 fixation. it is a carboxylase and oxygenase to fix carbon and oxygen (x10 affinity for CO2)

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CO2 reduction

oxidation reduction reaction- ATP to ADP+Pi and NADPH to NADP+

  • generates glycealdehyde 3- phosphate a high energy molecule that is easy for plant cells to generate carbohydrates

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regeneration of RuBP

G3P converted to RuBP

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every 3 turns of the calvin cycle produce...

1 G3P which is easily converted to fructose and other sugars

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66

photorespiration

a metabolic pathway that occurs in photosynthetic organisms and releases carbon dioxide, consumes oxygen, and produces no chemical energy or food.

when hot- plant will lose water but stomata will stay close blocking CO2, concentration of CO2 will go down and oxygen concentration will increase

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C3 plants

roses, wheat, rice, soy CO2+ RuBP---> 2 G3P

  • requires a wet, cool environment

  • hot conditions have a lot of photo respiration

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C4 plants

corn, sugar cane

  • separated CO2 fixation by space CO2+ PEP ---> oxaloacerate

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CAM plants

Cacti separated CO2 fixation based on time Night: stroma is open CO2 is fixed to PEP by PEP carboxylase, taking in as much CO2 as possible Day: stroma closes CO2 is released

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70

steps of the cell cycle

  1. reproductive signal

  2. replicate DNA

  3. genome segregation

  4. cytokinesis

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71

binary fission

the process in which prokaryotic cells divide

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conditions for binary fission

ideal temperature, pH, energy source for a reproductive signal

<p>ideal temperature, pH, energy source for a reproductive signal</p>
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prokaryotic cells

-single celled organisms -circular DNA

  • exponential growth

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origin of replication in Prokaryotic Cell

  • only one

  • used to pull the chromosome to once side of the cell and splits the DNA

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Eukaryotic cell division/ check points

G1, synthesis, G2, metaphase

  • cannot pass to another checkpoint without passing the previous one

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G1 phase/ synthesis

Growth and synthesis of DNA

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G2 phase

ask: is all the DNA replicated? more growth and development

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metaphase

ask: are all the chromosomes aligned? mitosis and cytokinesis occur

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cyclin dependent kinase

protein required to progress through each checkpoint adds phosphate groups to Rb (tumor suppressor gene)

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80

unphosphorylated Rb

  • active

  • blocks DNA synthesis

  • no phosphate groups are attached

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81

phosphorylated Rb

-inactive

  • DNA is synthesized

  • phosphate groups are attached

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82

cancer

constant phosphorylation can cause constant replication and unwanted growth (tumor/retinoid blastoma)

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83

oncogenes

promotes cancer example: HER 2 receptors are hyperactive which causes breast cancer

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84

mitosis

cell division resulting in two daughter cells with the same DNA as the parent cell

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DNA packaging

each strand of DNA wraps around a histones (protein complex) in a tight coil to form a chromosome

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86

centromere

a specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the chromatids are held together to form an X shape

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cohesion

proteins that hold sister chromatids together

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interphase of Mitosis

G1, S, G2 cell is growing

<p>G1, S, G2 cell is growing</p>
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centrosome

microtubule organization center a cell in interphase has one centrosome centrosomes double in the G2 phase

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prophase

microtubule spindles form

<p>microtubule spindles form</p>
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prometaphase

nuclear membrane breaks down

<p>nuclear membrane breaks down</p>
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metaphase

chromosomes line up at metaphase plate

<p>chromosomes line up at metaphase plate</p>
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anaphase

separating of sister chromatids

<p>separating of sister chromatids</p>
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telophase

-nuclear envelope reforms -chromosomes de-condense -triggers cytokinesis

<p>-nuclear envelope reforms -chromosomes de-condense -triggers cytokinesis</p>
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cytokinesis

pulls membranes together to split into two cells

  • uses myosin and actin filaments

<p>pulls membranes together to split into two cells</p><ul><li><p>uses myosin and actin filaments</p></li></ul>
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separase

cleaves the proteins that hold the sister chromatids together

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meiosis

generates gametes (egg or sperm cells) cells are not identical to the parent cell

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somatic cells

any other cell in the body not including sex cells 2 sets of chromosomes, diploid (2n)

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99

how many chromosomes do humans have?

  • 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs 22 autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosomes

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100

gametes

sex cells 1 set of chromosomes, haploid cells

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