Democratization Final Exam

why do we still have a final exam when we have a research paper to do

Cognitive Orientation:

Knowledge of and belief about the political system. Do people know about the political system? 

Affective Orientation

Feelings about the political system and its performance. Do people know how the political system affects them?

Evaluational Orientation

Judgements and opinions about political objects. Do people have opinions about how politics should be conducted?

Parochial Culture

 Don’t know much about the system, don’t care much for the system, don't believe in it, don't participate in it. 

Subject Culture:

Aware of the impact and knows how it affects them. Aware of the outcomes. 

Participant Culture:

Not only aware of the system, but keeps up with it as active parts of the culture.

Post Industrial Phase of Modernization

involves greater demands for democracy and self expression/ economic needs are generally met, so focus shifts to self expression and demand for democracy and rights

Carother’s 5 Assumptions of the “Transition Paradigm, 1:

Any country moving away from dictatorial rule can be considered a country in translation toward democracy. 

Carother’s 5 Assumptions of the “Transition Paradigm, 2:

Democratization occurs in a sequence of stages (opening, breakthrough, consolidation).

Carother’s 5 Assumptions of the “Transition Paradigm, 3:

Determinative point of elections.

Carother’s 5 Assumptions of the “Transition Paradigm, 4:

Underlying conditions in transitional countries (i.e. structural features) are not major factors in the onset or outcome of the transition.

Carother’s 5 Assumptions of the “Transition Paradigm, 5:

Democratic transitions being built on coherent, functioning states.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 1:

Dual legitimacy between executive and the legislature.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 2:

Increased likelihood of inter branch conflict.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 3:

Lack of mechanisms to resolve inter branch conflict.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 4:

Presidential elections create “zero sum” politics.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 5:

Raised stakes presidential election outcomes.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 6:

Fixed terms reduce flexibility of systems.

Linz’s 7 Reasons for the Perils of Presidentialism, 7:

Presidential elections result in high disproportionality.

Civil Society

The realm of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, self-supporting, autonomous from the state, and bound by legal order or set of shared rules. 

Civil Society as a “Safe Place”

organizing opposition without immediate repression from government (ie black churches in the south)

Vs. “Traffic Cop”

provides logistical support for successful movements (organizing restrooms and food for protests)

Vs. “Dispatcher”:

mobilizes and creates the focal points for a social movement

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

When groups of one cleavage overlap with groups in another cleavage. Cleavages are different identity or class-based groups, such as racial or economic. Multiple dimensions of political conflict, race, labor, etc. -- is the extent that these conflicts align with each other

Social Capital

Features of social organizations, such as trust, norms, and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions.

Institutionalization:

institutions have value in and of themselves, regardless of who occupies the leadership of the institution

Rustow’s: Background Condition:

National unity; all people must have the same understanding of how they are politically situated and the shared want for democratic government. 

Rustow’s: Preparatory Phase

Usually the result of a prolonged and inclusive political struggle. 

Rustow’s: Decision Phase

Deliberate action to accept the existence of diversity and institutionalize democratic procedure (small groups of leaders). 

Rustow’s: Habituation Phase

Democracy tends to reward those who commit to it, producing more commitment than may initially be the case. (“Democracy is a competitive process and may reward those who sincerely believe in it”)

Consociationalism:

A system of representation for the people that attempts to represent as many groups of people as possible. Ie: Executive power-sharing in broad coalition cabinets, Executive-legislative balance of power, Multiparty systems

Characteristics of Westminster (Majoritarian) Model of Democracy: 

• Concentration of executive power in a single party with a bare majority

• Executive dominance

• 2 party system

Functional Theories of Democratization:

focus on what makes democracy work effectively; sometimes assumed that these make the onset of democracy more likely, but not always tested

Pacted Democracy:

political elites make varied agreements to share power or alternate rule for a given time, discourage and exclude new political leaders or political movements from challenging their power

Survival Values:

place emphasis on economic and physical security, & they are linked with a relatively ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and tolerance. prioritize survival, due to its insecurity. Food Water shelter etc. -- more prominent in pre-industrial societies.*

Self Expression Values:

give high priority to subjective well-being, self-expression* and quality of life. prioritize free choice -- uniquely positioned to support democracy.*

Genetic Theories of Democratization:

focus on what makes democracy come about; explicit attempt to determine prerequisites & causality

Military as Government vs Institution:

• As Government: junta, with counsel running gov’t, unlikely running gov’t on its own

• As an Institution: military as it is

Authoritarian Hardliners

tend to be found in the repressive cores of the authoritarian bloc: the police, the legal bureaucracy, censors, among journalists, and so on

Authoritarian Reformers

tend to be recruited from among politicians of the regime and from some groups outside the state apparatus: sectors of the bourgeoisie under capitalism, and some economic managers under socialism.

Grey Zone” Political Regimes:

Transitional countries often get caught in regular & non-entrenched non-democratic practices

Feckless pluralism:

still very corrupt; might have institutions of democracy, but none of the ethics of democracy

Dominant-power politics:

single party state, no real political competition

Unclear political trajectory:

backsliding; alternates between democratic practices and more authoritarian practices (ex: Ukraine or Poland)

Instability and/or incoherence:

democratic institutions, but no bureaucratic capacity (ex: areas that they don't control, very little governing power)

Duverger’s Law:

there is incentive for parties to combine to increase chances of winning the election, thus more likely for the government to have two parties

Presidentialism:

The head of state and the head of government are separate. The president (executive) is elected independently of the legislature. The executive and legislative branches are seen as equals.

Parliamentarianism:

In a parliamentary system, the head of state ( monarch or ceremonial president) and the head of government ( prime minister) are often separate roles. The head of government is typically the leader of the majority party in the parliament and is accountable to the parliament.

Waves of Democracy:

group of transitions from non-democratic to democratic regimes that occur during a specific period of time and that significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite direction during that period of time

Huntington’s Explanation for why Democracy comes in Waves:

• Common external stimuli -> ex: fall of the USSR

• Parallel development -> number of countries achieved levels or development for democracy around the same time

• Snowballing -> success of democracy in one country encourages democracy in others

• Prevailing nostrum -> elites in different countries share a common belief in the appropriate response to a crisis

Image Theory:

publics & policy-makers alike determine their foreign-policy stances based on their impressions of other countries, not objective realities

Sharp Power:

the ability to pierce, penetrate, or perforate the informational environments in targeted countries (ex: misinformation, explicit attempts by Russia & China to influence US public opinion: fake news articles, social media accounts) (vs soft power - aid, model, etc.)

Leverage

a government's vulnerability to external democratic pressure

Linkage

density of ties (economic, political, diplomatic, social, organizational)and cross-border flows (of capital, goods & services, people, information) between countries

Structural methods for developing linkage:

primarily due to geographical proximity

Policy methods for developing linkage

primarily due to strategic policy choices of elites

Gatekeepers for Linkage and Leverage:

 elites who have the ability to increase or decrease linkage, Ie: Ruling elites, opposition, and economic beliefs

Hybrid Regimes:

Non-dem regimes that manifest, at least superficially, some dem features (aka: electoral democracy, pseudo-democracy, semi-authoritarian)

Competitive Authoritarianism:

incumbents can manipulate electoral rules and government institutions to their advantage but cannot eliminate or completely reduce formal democratic rules

Reasons for Elections in Authoritarian Regimes:

1. Coopt elites, party members, or other groups within society

2. Coopt opposition

3. Gather information

4. Bolster legitimacy

5. Demonstrate coercive power

6. Signal regime strength

Deep Legitimacy:

based on loyalty to institutions, rules, & norms; distinction is drawn between performance of the government (those in power) and the regime (rules of the game)

Shallow Legitimacy:

based on the performance of the political regime, and can be withdrawn if the political regime fails to deliver expected results

Three Parts of Democracy Being Consolidated (Linz and Stepan): Behaviorally

no significant national, social, economic, political, or institutional actors spend significant resources attempting to achieve their objectives by creating a nondemocratic regime or by seceding from the state

Three Parts of Democracy Being Consolidated (Linz and Stepan): Attitudinally

A strong majority of public opinion (even in the midst of economic problems or dissatisfaction with incumbents), holds the belief that democratic procedures & institutions are the most appropriate

Three Parts of Democracy Being Consolidated (Linz and Stepan): Constitutionally

government & non-government forces are subject & habituated to the resolution of conflict within the bounds of specific laws, procedures, and institutions of the democratic process

Three Factors for Democratic Backsliding (Haggard and Kaufman):

1. Social & political polarization -> government dysfunction & lack of trust in institutions

2. Whether would-be autocrats can capture the executive & gain the legislature's support or acquiescence to their authority

3. Gradual subversion of democratic institutions, making it difficult to counter until it is too late

Types of Democratic Consolidation (Schedler), Avoiding democratic breakdown:

stop or marginalize disloyal players

Types of Democratic Consolidation (Schedler), Avoiding democratic erosion:

avoid the subversion of the rule of law, the rise of hegemonic parties, privileged access to state resources & mass media, or intro of exclusionary citizenship

Types of Democratic Consolidation (Schedler), Completing democracy:

remove nondemocratic institutions in government, peaceful turnover of power, establish rule of law

Types of Democratic Consolidation (Schedler), Deepening Democracy

improving government performance, judicial independence, public admin, civil society, political culture, party systems

Types of Democratic Consolidation (Schedler), Organizing democracy

institutionalizing democracy's basic ground rules & constructing all big organizations that make up the infrastructure of democracy (party stems, legislative bodies, etc.)

What are hybrid regimes?

• Hybrid regimes, AKA grey zone regimes refer to a political system that displays both democratic and authoritarian characteristics.

• They are regimes that fall somewhere between democracies and authoritarian systems.

How/why do Hybrid regimes come about?

• History of the country, has there been authoritarian rule before? ( this can factor in)

• Political culture and institutions may promote hybrid regimes.

• Manipulating electoral processes, restricting political opposition, controlling key institutions, and other authoritarian behavior.

• Democratic backsliding.*

How do they challenge our understanding of democratic institutions and the process of democratization?

• Elections don't necessarily equate to full-fledged democracy.

• The presence of authoritarian elements hinders the process of democratic consolidation.*

• The existence of a hybrid regime can diminish the legitimacy/ credibility of the democratization process.

Juan Linz argues that presidential democracies are more likely to experience instability than parliamentary democracies:

Linz argues that the separation of executive and legislative, two equal and separate branches can lead to what he terms dual legitimacy*, the inherent separation of these two institutions may result in conflict between the president (executive) and the legislator hindering effective governance. {Think of US government shutdowns when the legislative and executive branches have to work together to pass the budget, without cooperation or a “deal” between them we get government shutdowns where many people are affected.}

Linz also argues:

that in presidential systems both the executive and the legislators are given fixed terms which he claims aids in the “rigidity” of the system because it makes it difficult to respond swiftly to crises or changing political environments, especially when compared to parliamentary systems where the prime minister can be voted out or dismissed with a vote of no confidence.*

What are some arguments against his “perils of presidentialism” thesis?

• Some argue that presidential systems are consistently stable*, especially in the West with countries like the United States.

• Checks and balances between the branches prevent abuse of power and authoritarian development

• Direct accountability through direct elections from the people, is unlikely in a parliamentary system where parliament decides the prime minister. Making presidential systems more accountable to the people through the process of direct elections.

Democratic Backsliding:

the incremental erosion of institutions, rules & norms that result from the actions of duly elected governments

• Social and political polarization → Government dysfunction and distrust

• Whether a would-be autocrat captures the executive and gain the legislature’s support for or acquiescence to their authority

• Gradual subversion of democratic institutions, making it difficult to encounter until it is too late