Bio Final

What is natural selection? What is the typical 'selecting force' for natural selection?

A process which random changes are selected by nature in a consistant non-random way. Biological fitness

What is the definition of 'fitness' and how is it determined?

the ability to survive, reproduce and produce viable off spring

Distinguish natural versus artificial selection.

Natural selection: nature

Artificial selection: human interference

Compare homologous versus analogous structures. WHICH ONES INDICATE COMMON ANCESTRY?

Homologous structures are similar in morphology, anatomy, and genetics but have different functions (common ancestry)

Analogous structures anatomically different but perform the same function

What are the different types of evidence can be seen today that supports the theory of evolution? (hint: ABEFG)

Anatomy

Biochemistry

Embryology

Fossils

Geography

What does it mean if a population IS or IS NOT in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

If the population isn’t evolving then it is in HWE, if it is then it isn’t in HWE

What are the different types of microevolution/genetic drift? How does each influence population frequencies?

Genetic drift are changes in allele frequencies due to chance, causing changes in genetic makeup; while microevolution is change in gene frequency in a population from environmental changes.

There are 4 different concepts of "species" that we discussed:

morphological (physical traits)

phylogenetic (DNA similarities)

evolutionary (fossil record)

biological (can reproduce and have offspring that reproduce)

Distinguish allopatric from sympatric speciation.

Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is divided by geographic barriers. Sympatric speciation is present when a population is divided into different groups

Compare/contrast convergent versus divergent evolution. What do they say about common ancestry?

Convergent evolution occurs when 2 unrelates species share a biological trait due to the environment. Divergent evolution when a single ancestor starts a variety of new species.

What is early Earth’s atmosphere hypothesized to have contained?

water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia

The major eras of the Earth’s history. What major events happened in each?

Precambrian: very first cell (photosynthetic prokaryotes)

Paleozoic: mass extinction

Mesozoic: seeded plants, dinosaurs, mass extinction

Cenozoic: mammals and primates evolved

Distinguish a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell. cellularity (multi vs unicellular), relative cell size, DNA packaging (single circular chromosome in nuclei region in prok vs. ??? in euk) , cell division / reproduction, internal compartmentalization (organelles).

eukaryotic cells

• have a nucleus (stores DNA)

• multicellular

• larger

• sexual

• mitosis

prokaryotic cell

• singular double stranded DNA

• small

• asexual

• unicellular

• binary fission

• no membrane bounded orgenelles

How do bacteria and archaea differ?

1. plasma membrane

2. cell walls

3. dna replication

4. gene expression

Identify the 3 main shapes of bacteria.

coccus - round

bacillus - rod

spiral - curve

What does it mean for a bacterium to be gram positive or gram negative?

referring to the thickness

Positive - very thick

negative - thin

Bacteria can recombine DNA by transformation, transduction, and conjugation

Bacteria can recombine DNA by transformation, transduction, and conjugation

Describe protists

eukaryotic organisms that are not plant, animal, or fungi

Be able to distinguish green algae, red algae, brown algae, diatoms, zooflagellates, amoebas, ciliates,dinoflagellates, and slime molds AS PROTISTS! You will NOT be asked specifics about each - just that they all go in the protist bucket.

• green algae - protists that carry out photosynthesis (phylum = chlorophyta and charophyta)

• red algae - rhodophyta

• brown algae - phaeophyceae ( excess food stored as carbs called laminarin)

• diatoms - most numerous unicellular algae in the ocean ( phytoplankton)

• zooflagellates - most parasitic, causes various diseases in humans

• amoeba - move and ingest food with pseudopods, phagolysosomes to digest food

• ciliates - among the most complex protozoans, hundreds beat in coordinated rhythm

• dinoflagellates - two perpendicular flagella causes a spinning motion, bioluminescence

• slime molds - feel like algae, no cell wall

What is common among all algae? (i.e. what defines them)

cellularity

What general role do most protists play in their ecosystem?

feed most of the worlds aquatic species

Describe general fungi structure and feeding characteristics.

multicellular eukaryotes that share a common mode of nutrition

they release digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients

What other organisms are fungi closely related to? (remember - fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants - but an animal is ALWAYS more closely related to another animal than it is to a fungi.

fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants - but an animal is ALWAYS more closely related to another animal than it is to a fungi.

Describe the mycorrhizal relationship between fungi and plants.

• 80-90%of plant species gave mycorrhizal partners

  the fungal mycelia channels water and mineral from the soil into the plant, the plant uses supplies from photosynthesis to fuel the metabolism of the fungus

The following are all fungi

zygomycota

chytridiomycota

ac fungi (including molds and yeast),

club fungi.

(They all go in the fungi bucket.)

Bryophytes go in the 'nonvascular plants' bucket.

Vascular plants can be seedless (ferns) or seeded(gymnosperms and angiosperms)

What adaptations needed to occur for plants to move to land and grow tall?

lignin

Describe the concept of alternation of generations and how it functions in plants. (briefly)

• Haplontic: life cycle in which there is a dominant haploid stage ( gametophyte)

• Diplontic: life cycle in which diploid is a dominant stage (sporophyte, humans)

To transition to tall plants, vasculature was important. Describe how xylem and phloem help a plant grow tall

xylem tissue is lignified for support, strength, and to make it impermeable to water.

phloem transports sugars, proteins, and other material throughout the plant

Why is a damp environment important for seedless vascular plant?

reproduction still depend on water during fertilization

List the 4 seedless vascular plants discussed. Know they go in the seedless vascular plants bucket.

club moss

whisk ferns

horsetails

ferns

Distinguish gymnosperms from angiosperms. Which evolved most recently?

how their seeds develop, angiosperms

How do/did animals contribute to the evolution of seed plants?

animals aid seed dispersal

What 8 characteristics define the animal kingdom? (lesson 10 - first few slides)

Multicellularity

Complex tissue structure

Heterotrophy

Active movement

Diversity of form and size

Sexual reproduction

Developmental stages

Body plan

Animals have complex tissue structure. What 4 types of tissues are found in animals?

Connective tissue

Epithelial tissue

Nervous tissue

Muscle tissue

Describe the 4 features used to classify animals.

1. Symmetry

2. Number of tissue layers

3. Origin of mouth and anus

4. Body plan and cavities

How was animal phylogeny originally determined? How is it determined now?

Originally morphological characteristics, now: biochemical, molecular, genetic evidence

The Cambrian explosion created great animal diversity. Be able to identify WHEN the Cambrian periodoccurred. (see # 12 above

during the paleozoic era 540 mya

How many mass extinction events are there in history? What were their causes? How does that differ from current day extinction rates?

5 mass extinctions, caused by climate change , the current mass extinctions are human related.

Look at slide 4 of Lesson 11 - be able to put the invertebrates in the Invertebrate bucket and the vertebrates in the vertebrate bucket. YOU DO NOT NEED TO GIVE SPECIFIC EXAMPLES FOR EACH OR DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EACH PHYLUM. You're welcome. :-)

All chordates have 4 common features. List/describe the 4.

Notochord: flexible, rod-shaped structure, develops into vertebrae

Dorsal hollow nerve cord: develops into spinal cord

Pharyngeal gill slits: gills, ears, tonsils

Post-anal tail

What makes an organism an amniote?

lay eggs on land or retain them within mother

reptiles

birds

mammals

Distinguish endothermic from ectothermic. What are we?

Ectothermic require fewer calories but cannot maintain body temp, Endothermic produce their own body heat. We are endothermic

What are the two organ systems in plants?

Shoot system

Root system

What are the three types of tissues that plants have?

Dermal: leaves, stem, roots

Ground tissues: metabolism, storage, support

Vascular tissues: xylem

What is the function of stomata?

take up carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water vapor

How is vascular tissue arranged in monocots vs. dicots - in stems? in roots?

monocots, vascular tissue is scattered throughout the stem and arranged in a complex network in roots. dicots, vascular tissue forms distinct rings in stems and a central vascular cylinder in roots.

Distinguish tap roots from fibrous roots. Which type of plants have which type of roots?

Tap root systems have a main root that grows down, fibrous root systems consists of many small roots.

What is the purpose of root hairs?

increase surface area of roots

Primary growth in plants occurs at the apical meristem

in both roots and shoots

What four (4) things do plants need from their environment?

1. Water

2. Sunlight

3. Carbon dioxide

4. Essential inorganic nutrients/minerals

What makes a nutrient 'essential'?

its necessary for normal growth

How are minerals absorbed by plants?

through the roots

What does xylem carry - and in which direction(s)? Alive or dead?

carries water and nutrients from roots to leaves, non living.

Define water potential. Which direction does water always flow? (high to low or low to high?)

Water potential: the mechanical energy of water. water flows from higher to lower.

Why does water move INTO the roots? Be able to explain how this relates to water potential.

plants accumulate high concentrations of minerals just inside the root epidermis, which uses water potential.

In addition to root pressure, what two phenomena contribute to the ability of water to reach the top of tall plants and trees?

Stoma: openings on the bottom of the leaves that help gas exchange.

Guard cells: open and close stoma to prevent evaporation of water.

What does the phloem carry - and in which direction(s)? Alive or dead?

Transports products of photosynthesis - from leaves to other parts of the plant

In what ways do plants respond to light? (focus on what they do - not the vocab)

photomorphogenesis, growth and development of plants in response to light. Photoperiodism, ability to use light to track time. Phototropism, directional response that allows plants to grow toward, or away from light.

What are some mechanisms by which plants protect themselves from herbivores?

Bark

waxy cuticle

Thorns

Spines

Flowers are the gametophyte generation in plants. (know this)

Flowers are the gametophyte generation in plants

Be able to identify the female and male reproductive structures in plants. (which parts are male, which parts are female)

Stamen = male

Pistil = female

Where does pollen form?

Stamen

How does self-pollination differ from cross-pollination?

Self-pollination is when pollen is deposited on the stigma from the same flower, while Cross-pollination is when a pollinator is involved transferring pollen from the anther of one flower to the sigma of a different flower of the same species

What are the major ways in which pollination can occur?

biotic agents, like, insects, birds, etc.

How are seeds an important adaptation for plants?

they maintain dormancy under trying conditions

protect young plant

provide food

facilitate dispersal of the embryo

What are fruits?

mature ovaries

Be able to recognize (simple) body sectioning as being frontal/coronal, transverse, or sagittal.

How is positive feedback different from a negative feedback loop? What are examples of each?

Positive feedback maintains the response to a stimulus, negative feedback counteracts internal changes

What are the four (4) different types of tissues found in animals?

epithelia - line surfaces

connective - connect tissue

muscles - movement

neurons - send and receive messages

How are epithelial cells distinguished

shapes and layers

What common features do all connective tissues have?

fibers, gel like substance (matrix), fibroblast

What are some examples of connective tissues?

blood

loose

adipose (fat)

cartilage

bone

dense

What are the three (3) types of muscle tissues?

Smooth

Skeletal

cardiac

What two (2) types of cells are found in nervous tissue? What is the purpose of each?

Neurons and neuroglia, generate and transmit electrical impulses

Distinguish asexual and sexual reproduction in animals. (What are several ways in which animals can reproduce asexually?)

asexual reproduction result in the offspring being genetically identical, sexual reproduction results in unique offspring

ways animals can reproduce asexually:

bud

splitting

regenerate from fragments

Define the process of fertilization.

process by which a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell

External fertilization involves broadcast spawning. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this mode of reproduction?

Advantages:

high diversity

colonization of new environments

Disadvantages:

opportunities for predation

offspring must mature quickly

survival rate of eggs is low

What are some advantages to internal fertilization?

protects the fertilized egg from dehydration

limits predation

enhances the fertilization

higher survival rate

Be able to trace the fate of sperm from their beginnings in the testes to exit from the body.

1. testes: produce sperm

2. epididymis: site of maturation, storage

3. Vasa deferentia: conduct and store

4. seminal vesicles: contribute fluid to sperm

5. prostate gland: contribute fluid to sperm

6. Urethra: conducts sperm (and urine)

7. bulbourethral gland: contribute fluid to seman

8. penis: organ of copulation

On a very basic level - what is semen composed of? Where does the fluid enter the process and how does it help the sperm?

fluid and sperm. enters through the seminal vesicles and prostate gland, helps the sperm travel

What part of the brain helps to control hormonal secretions? What other gland is involved?

hypothalamus, pituitary gland

Be able to trace the fate of an egg - from ovary to the birth of a baby. Where does fertilization typically occur?

ovary - produce egg

fallopian tubes - location of fertilization

uterus- (womb) houses developing embryo and fetus

vagina - receives penis during copulation and birth canal

Over the course of the month, what happens to the endometrium?

Days 1-5

endometrium disintegrates causing menses

Days 6-13

endometrium thickens, ovulation occurs on 14th day

Days 15-28

Endometrium doubles in thickness

What happens on Day 1 of the uterine cycle?

endometrium breaks down

How long does an egg live after ovulation? How long do sperm survive once released?

copulation and fertilization don't always happen on the same day.

oocytes survive 24 hours after ovulation. Sperm can survive for a couple minutes outside the body, but remain viable within.

Why do females experience menopause?

eggs are old since they were formed before birth

What are the three phases of digestion?

Cephalic phase - natural response, triggers salivation

Gastric phase - begins once the food arrives in the stomach

Intestinal phase - begins when chyme enters the small intestine triggering digestive secretions

How does food get from the mouth to the stomach? Include the words bolus and peristalsis.

after the bolus is swallowed it goes through the esophagus which uses peristalsis to move food to the stomach

What are some accessory organs for digestion?

Accessory organs add secretions (enzymes) that catabolize food nto nutrients

• salivary glands

• liver: produces bile, processed vitamins and fats, synthesized many plasma proteins

• pancreas: neutralize the acidic chyme, digest protein and carbs

• gallbladder: store bile

Where in the digestive system does absorption take place?

small intestine

What is chyme? Which opening controls its release? Chyme is released through this opening from the___ to the ____

chyme is food mixed with gastric juices.

Chyme is released through this opening from the pyloric sphincter to the stomach

What is the purpose of having villi in the small intestine?

greatly increase absorptive area

Where are each of the major macromolecules (carbs, lipids, proteins) digested?

small intestine

What is the main function of the nervous system?

1. receiving sensory input

2. performing integration

3. generating motor output

What is the purpose of the spinal cord?

• reflex actions

• communication between the brain and spinal nerves

The two main divisions of the nervous system are the CNS and PNS. What makes up the CNS? The PNS?What subdivisions are there in the PNS?

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• brain

• spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Describe the structure of a neuron. Be able to label the parts.

Neurons- cell body contains nucleus

Dendrites - receive signals from other neurons

axon - conduct nerve impulses

myelin sheath - covering

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are secreted from one neuron by the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft and picked up by the dendrites of the next neuron in order pass the signal along.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are secreted from one neuron by the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft and picked up by the dendrites of the next neuron in order pass the signal along.

What is resting membrane potential in a neuron? How is this achieved?

created and maintained by increasing the concentration of cations