SOC150 Final

random error vs. systematic error

probability sampling vs. nonprobability sampling

Probability: Researchers know the likelihood that a person will be selected.
Nonprobability: Researchers do not know the likelihood that a person in the population will be selected for the sample

structured surveys vs in-depth interviews

qualitative vs. quantitative

Qualitative: Ways of collecting data the yield results like words or text (in-depth understanding of a small amount of cases)
Quantitative: Collects data that is condensed into numbers (Less depth, but more focus on a large numbers of cases)

Cross Sectional Surveys

Cross-sectional surveys are conducted at one moment in time. These surveys provide a “snapshot” of the attitudes and values of a sample, at a single timepoint.

Longitudinal Surveys

Longitudinal surveys are conducted across multiple time points. These surveys allow researchers to observe how individuals' attitudes, values and behaviours change over time.

Types of longitudinal surveys

Trend surveys, Panel surveys, Cohort surveys

Attrition Bias

A type of bias in longitudinal surveys that arises when a substantial proportion of respondents have dropped out of the survey. The people who remain often have certain characteristics that may affect the study’s findings.

Nonresponse bias

A type of bias that arises when there are differences between respondents and nonrespondents, which skews the sample away from the target population.

Interviews

Qualitative interviews are conducted one-on-one, between the researcher and the participant. They allow the respondent to provide detailed explanations in response to questions, allowing the researcher to uncover more depth and nuanced perspectives.

Meta-Analysis in Research

A statistical procedure that synthesizes results from multiple quantitative studies

Empirical papers vs. theoretical papers

Empirical papers involve data collection/analysis
Theoretical papers focus on building theories

Target Population

The group that the researcher is interested in learning about

Deductive approach to research

Researchers evaluate the fit between an established theory and findings

Research Problem

A gap in scientific knowledge that needs to be addressed through study

Primary purpose of exploratory research?

To scope out the magnitude of a phenomenon and generate initial ideas about new areas of inquiry

primary purpose of peer review?

To ensure research meets professional field standards and expectations

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to interpret data in ways that support existing views

Empirical questions vs. Normative Questions

Empirical questions can be answered through research about factual reality, while normative questions concern moral values and societal standards

Main function of a literature review in research

To summarize and point out gaps in existing research on a topic

Requirements for a theory to be valid

Fits the available evidence and data from observations

Stages of the research process

Analyzing data, Proposing a theory, Specifying a research question

Ethnography

Inserting a researcher into a research site to observe and study their target group’s behaviour in their natural setting.

Benefit of ethnography

Allows you to study a phenomenon within its primary social context by doing first-hand observations and providing detailed descriptions

Open ended vs. Close ended questions

Closed: Has a set of predetermined response choices

Open: Do not have a set of predetermined response choices. Allow respondent to provide their own answer

Rapport + Non-verbal cues

Cues: A respondents facial expressions, gestures, or other types of body language that hint at their underlying feelings about a topic

Rapport: The sense of connection a researcher establishes with a participant. Done to encourage them to speak in greater detail

Treatment vs. Control Groups

Treatment: The group that gets the “treatment”

Control: Does not get the treatment.
Both groups are accessed to see any differences between them

Lab experiments

Conducted in an artificial setting with controlled manipulations

Field experiments

Conducted in a real world setting with controlled manipulations

Conjoint experiments

Survey-based techniques that help determine the attributes people value in an object or action

Vignette Experiments

Provide participants with different examples of situations and ask for participants’ reactions and responses to these situations.

Quasi-Experiments

Quasi-experimental designs approximate a true experimental design but lack random assignment to experimental and control groups.

Natural experiments

Natural experiments are where the treatment and control groups are naturally occurring. The treatment and control groups differ naturally without intervention

Internal and External validity

Internal: How well a study shows whether changes in the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variables

External: How well the study generalizes results from its sample to its target population or beyond (how it applies to the real world)

Triangulation

The combination of multiple research methods. The incorporation of one research method can address the gaps/limitations of another

Focus Groups + Benefits

Involve multiple participants simultaneously. Consist of a moderator and several respondents. Allows respondents to talk about topics in a group setting.
Benefits: Allows the researcher to observe how normative pressures affect answers, see group dynamics and hear multiple perspectives.

Primary purpose of a sociological theory

To systematically explain social phenomena

overgeneralization

Assuming social patterns exist based on very limited information

Positive relationship between variables

As one variable increases, the other variable also increases

valid observations in sociological methodology

Systematic and credible documentation of experiences, whether direct or indirect

two main levels that scientific research operates on

Theoretical level and empirical level

basic vs applied research

Applied research solves practical problems while basic research aims to build general knowledge

Theory

A systematic explanation of a natural or social behavior, event, or other phenomenon

CATI

Computer-assisted telephone interviewing

Social Desirability Bias

Respondents hide their true opinion in order to appear better to others

Fence-Sitter

Constantly selecting “neutral” options on a survey

Probabilistic relationship

Two variables go together with some degree of regularity

Negative relationship

Selective observation

Noticing only social patterns that one has experienced directly/wishes to find

Exploratory vs. Descriptive vs. Explanatory

Exploratory: Examines new areas of inquiry to figure out the extent of a problem and generate ideas
Descriptive: Directed at making careful observations and generating detailed documentation
Explanatory: Seeks explanations of observed behaviors. Answers questions

Inductive vs. Deductive

Inductive: Start with a set of observations and use empirical evidence gathered to create propositions
Deductive: Start with a social theory then test its implications with data

null hypothesis

Predicts no relationship between the variables being studied.

Sample

Manageable number of subjects who represent a population

Population

The general focus of a study

Operationalization

Define the concept in terms of the steps it takes to objectively measure it

Sampling frame

List of members in a population that is available to researchers

Sampling error

The difference between the statistics obtained from a sample and the actual parameters of a population

Self selection bias

Participants who leave a study tend to come from particular subgroups, undermining the representativeness of the study’s sample

Nonresponse bias

Respondents and nonrespondents differ in important ways, which means the relevant characteristics observed in the sample differ from those in the target population

Response Rate

The percentage of people who actually completed the survey out of the amount of people asked to participate