Ethics Exam II

What is G.E. Moore's argument against the claim that the very meaning of “good” is “pleasure”? 

Pleasure is not always good. If something is good, it does not necessarily mean that it is pleasurable. 

Why, according to Ross, is utilitarianism a better moral theory than egoism?

Utilitarianism takes into consideration a large number of people rather than just one person. The pleasure that is produced in utilitarianism far outweighs the pleasure produced in egoism. 

What does Ross mean when he claims that utilitarianism simplifies “unduly our relations to our fellows”?

Utilitarianism simplifies our relationships to others, such as our neighbors, down to them being potential beneficiaries. When one simplifies their relations, they can forget to follow through with their duties other than maximizing happiness. 

What, according to Ross, is a prima facie duty? And what relation does it have to an actual duty?

A prima facie duty is a duty that one has and must follow through with unless they are met with another duty that outweighs it. 

What are 3 examples of Ross’s fundamental kinds of prima facie duties?

1. Fidelity arises from making promises and establishing trust 

2. Gratitude arises from appreciation of others actions

3. Reparation arises from our own previous wrongful actions  

What is intuition?

Intuition is a sense of understanding fundamental moral truths. Rational beings don't need an actual reason not to break promises and lie because their intuition knows it is wrong. 

What is a self-evident proposition?

A self-evident proposition is something that is true and does not need any justification for one to believe in it. 2 + 2 =4. 

What is Ross’s position on the use of a supreme principle of morality in ethics?

Humans don't need a supreme principle to dictate their daily lives, as they know certain things are wrong, such as murder, and they don't need a principle to tell them that.  

What is Ross’s argument against utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism does not account for how complex life truly is. Ross claims humans have other obligations other than producing happiness and that some relationships are more important than others; therefore, duties to those relationships outweigh any duty of producing happiness for a stranger.  

What is Ross’s method of arriving at truth in ethics?

Ross weighs the prima facie duties of several moral principles against each other. This reflection will show someone which duty to follow and will allow them to find their moral truth.   

What, according to Singer, is absolute poverty?

A state where one can barely afford the basic necessities of life, or less. If someone has to choose between buying food and paying rent, they are in absolute poverty. 

What, according to Singer, is absolute affluence?

A state where one can afford the basic necessities of life as well as the luxuries. If someone can afford food and a new TV, they are in absolute affluence. 

What is the main moral principle Singer argues for in his famine article?

If one can prevent something bad from happening without sacrificing anything of comparable significance, they ought to do it.

Why does Singer use the analogy of the child in the pond?

If one were to jump into a pond to save a drowning child and by doing so sacrifice their clothes, they ought to help starving children thousands of miles away, even if it means sacrificing something. 

How does Singer respond to the claim that we should take care of those nearby first and foremost?

One shouldn't choose to help starving children in America over starving children in other countries, as they have equal obligations to help both. 

How much does Singer propose each of us give to relieve famine?

One should give as much as they can to help those in a famine, as long as it does not put them in a state of absolute poverty. 

How does Singer respond to the objection that we should leave famine relief to the government?

Society should not rely on the government to relieve famine because everyone has an individual duty to prevent bad things from happening. One is responsible for following through with their duties regardless of what the government does. 

How does Arthur respond to the claim that “all life is of equal value”?

While everyone has equal rights and a life of equal value, we shouldn't treat everyone equally, but rather based on their actions. 

What does Arthur mean by “entitlement”? And how do entitlements relate to our obligations?

Entitlements are things people have earned and have rights to. Entitlements prevent people from fulfilling their duties of giving as much as they can. 

What is the distinction between negative rights and positive rights?

Negative rights are rights to non-interference, such as the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and positive rights are rights to benefits in exchange for work/effort. 

What, according to Arthur, is the “ideal moral code” for a given society?

An ideal moral code for a given society would be one that maximizes the overall well-being of the society in light of human nature. 

What human realities does Arthur think we should consider in forming the ideal moral code?

An ideal moral code must consider human realities since humans have negative traits, such as being selfish. Selfishness prevents people from helping others and giving up their things in order to help others. 

What points does Thomson concede to the pro-life side for the sake of the argument?

A fetus is a person and therefore has a right to life. But because the woman carrying the fetus is also a person, the fetus does not have a right to use the woman's body.  

What does Thomson use the violinists example to argue for why women are permitted to abort fetuses?

Since the violinist does not have the right to use anyone's body and no one has a duty to stay attached to the violinist, a woman is permitted to abort a fetus since the fetus does not have the right to use her body, and she has no duty to keep the fetus 

What, according to Thomson, is the argument for the extreme view against abortion?

The extreme view against abortion is that it is wrong no matter the circumstances because a fetus is a person, and killing a person is wrong 

What, according to Thomson, would make abortion wrong?

An abortion is only wrong if it is done so for an unjust reason. If a woman wanted to get an abortion because she had a vacation planned in the next few months, that would be morally wrong.  

What is the good Samaritan and the minimally decent Samaritan example?

A good Samaritan will help someone even if it costs them something. A minimally decent Samaritan will help someone only to the extent that it doesn't cost them anything. Since there are no good Samaritan laws in the US, a woman should not feel obliged to be a good Samaritan and keep a fetus. 

What is Marquis’ critique of the usual anti-abortion kind of argument?

Anti abortion arguments rely on a biological definition of a human life. This definition is too broad because some things have human DNA, like cancer cells, and it is not wrong to kill them. 

What is Marquis’ critique of the usual pro-choice kind of argument?

Pro-choice arguments rely on a psychological definition of a human life. This definition is too broad because some people, like infants or the mentally disabled, lack psychological traits, and it is wrong to kill them.

Why, according to Marquis, is it wrong to kill adult human beings?

It is wrong to kill adult human beings because of the future like ours account, which states it is wrong to kill a being that has a future like ours.

What are Marquis’s arguments against the desire account of why killing is wrong?

Killing is wrong because people desire to live. While fetuses cannot desire to live, there may be people who have desires for that fetus to live. 

What are Marquis’s arguments against the discontinuity account of why killing is wrong?

Killing is wrong because it discontinues one's life, which humans value. While fetuses can't value their life, their life may have value if someone else values their life. 

Why is Marquis’ theory for the issue of contraception?

Contraception does not deprive a fetus of their future because there can be no identifiable victim when contraceptives are used. Contraceptives prevent eggs and sperm from combining, and since eggs and sperm do not have futures themselves, it is ok to use contraceptives. 

What is the Stoic value theory?

Virtue is the only thing that is truly good. One should focus on the internal thoughts and treat external actions as indifferent to virtue. 

Why is it important to remember that the external world is inert in relation to the soul?

People can't control things around them, but they can control how they interpret and judge them. It is important not to let negative emotions cloud one's mind and soul, and remember that one can control if certain things get to them. 

Why, according to Marcus, does the world repeatedly challenge us?

Everything that happens in life is in accordance with the universal nature, and therefore, every challenge that comes our way is meant for us because the universe knows we can overcome and learn from them. 

What does Marcus’s claim “physical substance is compliant and plastic” tell us about the soul?

The soul takes in all physical substances and makes them a part of one's life. Nothing comes into one's life that the soul cannot handle. 

What is the purpose of Marcus’s “stripping exercise?

If someone desires something, they should look at that desire in light of what it really is. Once the truth is unveiled, the desires start to fade. 

What are the consequences of treating indifferent things as either good or bad?

Treating things that are indifferent to virtue as either good or bad can result in focusing on external things that don't matter and can distract one from becoming a virtuous and good person. 

What is the purpose of contemplating all time and existence?

Contemplating all time and existence allows the one to reflect and return their focus on what is truly important in their life. It reminds them that their life is short and they shouldn't let negative thoughts impact them.