Investigating Science – Key Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, concepts and examples from the Investigating Science lecture notes. These cards aid revision of scientific investigations, methodology, data integrity, ethics, peer review, and the impact of technology and bias on scientific progress.

Scientific Investigation

An organised, systematic process used to answer a scientific question through finding, refining, questioning, and analysing data.

Inquiry Question

A guiding question that initiates and directs a scientific investigation.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that explains a phenomenon and states a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Primary Data

Information collected firsthand by the investigator during an experiment or fieldwork.

Secondary Data

Information gathered from existing sources such as books, articles, or databases, collected by others.

Scientific Theory

A well-supported explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be tested and refined.

Scientific Method

A six-step process: observe, question, hypothesise, design experiment, conduct experiment, accept or reject hypothesis.

Independent Variable

The factor deliberately changed by the experimenter to test its effect.

Dependent Variable

The factor measured in an experiment; it responds to changes in the independent variable.

Controlled Variable

Any factor kept constant to ensure that observed effects are due only to the independent variable.

Validity (First-hand)

The degree to which an investigation fairly tests the hypothesis, achieved by controlling variables and using appropriate equipment.

Reliability (First-hand)

The consistency of results when an experiment is repeated under the same conditions.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true or accepted value, enhanced by precise, calibrated equipment.

Sample Size

The number of observations or subjects used; larger sizes improve reliability and reduce random error.

Sampling

Collecting data from a subset of a larger population to make inferences about the whole.

Quadrat

A square frame used to sample non-mobile organisms in ecology, allowing estimation of population sizes.

Transect

A line along which ecological data are collected to study distribution changes across an area.

Capture-Recapture

A method for estimating mobile animal populations by tagging, releasing, and recapturing individuals.

Model

A representation that shows how an object or phenomenon works, ranging from diagrams to scale replicas.

Simulation

A computer- or lab-based recreation of a system that allows variables to be changed and effects observed.

Fieldwork

Scientific study conducted in natural settings where conditions are observed but not altered.

Primary Investigation

Research in which scientists directly collect and analyse their own data.

Secondary-sourced Investigation

Research involving analysis of data collected by other scientists or organisations.

Bias

A systematic error or preference that skews results away from true values.

Sample Bias

Distortion caused when a sample is not representative of the population being studied.

Confidence Level

The probability (in %) that a repeated investigation will produce similar results.

Confidence Interval

A range within which the true population parameter is expected to lie, given a margin of error.

Placebo

An inert substance or procedure given to a control group to measure psychological or physiological expectations.

Placebo Effect

Improvement in a participant’s condition due to their belief in the treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Control Group

A group that does not receive the experimental treatment and is used as a benchmark for comparison.

Double-Blind Trial

An experiment in which neither participants nor administering researchers know who receives the treatment or placebo.

Correlation

A measurable relationship between two variables without proof of cause and effect.

Causation

A relationship in which a change in one variable directly produces a change in another.

Hawthorne Effect

Altered behaviour of subjects caused by their awareness of being observed.

Peer Review

Evaluation of a scientific work by experts in the same field before publication to ensure validity and quality.

Publish or Perish

The pressure on scientists to frequently publish research to maintain employment or funding.

Predatory Journal

A publication that charges authors fees without providing legitimate peer review or editorial services.

Pseudoscience

Claims or beliefs presented as scientific but lacking empirical support, rigorous methodology, or peer review.

Halo Effect

A cognitive bias where positive impressions of a person or product influence perceptions of unrelated traits.

Myth

A widely held but false belief or idea lacking empirical evidence.

Fallacy

A mistaken belief based on flawed reasoning or unsound arguments.

Claim

An assertion that something is true, requiring evidence for support.

Evidence

Facts, data, or observations used to determine the validity of a claim.

Reasoning

Logical thinking that links evidence to a claim to justify a conclusion.

Fact

A statement that is known or proven to be true through observation or measurement.

Belief

Acceptance that something is true, often without empirical evidence.

Law (Scientific)

A concise statement that describes consistent relationships observed in nature, often expressed mathematically.

Theory (Scientific)

A comprehensive explanation of phenomena, supported by extensive evidence and capable of making predictions.

Hypothesis vs Theory

A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement; a theory is a well-substantiated explanation built from confirmed hypotheses.

Random Error

Unpredictable variations in measurements that affect precision and can be reduced by repeated trials.

Systematic Error

Consistent, repeatable error due to faulty equipment or methods, affecting accuracy.

Cost of Science

Consideration of equipment availability, expense, risk, and user familiarity when planning investigations.

Ethics (Research)

Standards ensuring research benefits society, minimizes harm, maintains confidentiality, and treats animals humanely.

Validity (Secondary Source)

Quality determined by author expertise, currency of information, and agreement with other experts.

Reliability (Secondary Source)

Consistency of information across reputable sources such as universities or government agencies.

Emotive Advertising

Marketing that appeals to emotions rather than evidence to persuade consumers.

Evidence-Based Claim

A statement supported by data obtained through rigorous scientific methods.

Doppler Effect

Change in wave frequency observed when the source moves relative to the observer, causing red or blue shift in light.

Red Shift

Spectral shift toward longer wavelengths indicating an object is moving away from the observer.

Blue Shift

Spectral shift toward shorter wavelengths indicating an object is moving toward the observer.

Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

The world’s largest particle accelerator used to study fundamental particles, including the Higgs boson.

Higgs Boson

A particle predicted by the Standard Model whose discovery explains how particles acquire mass.

X-ray Diffraction

Technique using X-ray scattering patterns to determine molecular structures, crucial in discovering DNA’s double helix.

Plate Tectonics

Theory describing the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere.

Boyle’s Law

Gas law stating that pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at constant temperature (PV = k).

Radioactive Decay

Spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission of particles or radiation.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Techniques for cutting and inserting genes from one organism into another, enabling GMOs like Bt cotton.

Base Isolation

Engineering technique that protects buildings from earthquake damage by allowing them to move independently of ground motion.

Bioharvesting

Collecting plants from their natural environment for food, medicines, or chemicals, requiring ethical management.

Bush Medicine

Traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander use of native plants for medicinal and material purposes.

Placebo-Controlled Trial

A study comparing effects of an active treatment with an inert placebo to measure true efficacy.

Confidence Interval vs Level

Interval: range of values likely to include the true parameter; Level: probability that interval contains the parameter.

Transgenic Technology

Creation of organisms containing genes from another species to express desired traits.

Bt Cotton

Genetically modified cotton containing a Bacillus thuringiensis gene that provides insect resistance.

Optical Fibre

Thin strands of glass that transmit light signals, applying laws of reflection and refraction for telecommunications.

Adaptive Optics

Telescope technology correcting atmospheric distortion by altering mirror shapes in real time.

Confidence Interval

Range of values within which the true population parameter is expected to fall, given a specific confidence level.

Andrew Wakefield Case

Example of fraudulent research linking MMR vaccine to autism, later retracted after peer review exposed misconduct.

Predatory Publishing Scam

Practice of charging authors to publish without genuine peer review, undermining scientific credibility.

Correlation vs Causation

Correlation shows association; causation proves one variable produces change in another—correlation alone is insufficient.

HRT–Heart Disease Misinterpretation

Case where observational studies misattributed reduced heart disease to hormone therapy, later disproven by controlled trials.

Mozart Effect

Disputed claim that listening to Mozart temporarily boosts spatial reasoning, illustrating misinterpretation of small-sample data.

Placebo Group

Participants receiving an inert treatment to measure effects of expectation in clinical trials.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable or treatment under investigation.

Peer-Reviewed Journal

Publication in which articles are evaluated by experts before acceptance to ensure research quality and integrity.

Popular Science Article

Media piece that explains scientific findings to a general audience, often simplified and potentially biased.

Social Media Misinformation

Spread of inaccurate or misleading scientific claims through online platforms due to lack of rigorous vetting.

Cherry Picking

Selective use of data that supports a desired conclusion while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Random Error Reduction

Achieved by increasing trial number and averaging results to improve precision.

Systematic Error Correction

Achieved by calibrating equipment and refining methods to improve accuracy.

Ethical Approval

Official permission required before conducting research involving humans or animals to ensure welfare and safety.