BOTAONE Finals

Sexual reproduction

union of sperm and egg cell

progeny are genetically diverse

some are less adapted or more than parent

cannot colonize rapidly since not all are adapted for it

changes may affect some progeny but not all

isolated ones cannot reproduce

flowers

contain the organs and tissues angiosperms need for sexual reproduction

cones are equivalent structures in conifers

basically a stem with leaf-like structures

never become woody

secondary growth does not occur

asexual reproduction

producing progeny that are clones of themselves

progeny are as adapted as parent is

rapid colonization

all progeny may be adversely affected by change

even isolated can reproduce

Flower parts

Pistil (stigma, style, ovule, ovary)
Stamen (anther, filament)
Petal

Sepal

Receptacle

Pedicel

pedicel

flower stalk

sepals

collectively, calyx

called reflect structure due to green color

lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages

modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts as they mature

typically the thickest, toughest, and waxiest of the flower parts

keeping bacterial and fungal spores away

maintaining a high humidity inside the bud

deterring insect feeding

colorful (petaloid) to help attract pollinators

petals

collectively, corolla

sepal or leaf like structures

Above the sepals on the receptacle

“leaf-like,” but they differ from leaves in that they contain pigments other than chlorophyll, have fewer or no fibers, and tend to be thinner and more delicately constructed

important in attracting correct pollinators

don’t develop in wind-pollinated species

seeds

produced within a fruit or a cone

have a means of long-distance dispersal (runners, rhizomes, plantlets)

pollen

complete plants

have less than a dozen cells, have no leaves, no roots, and no stems

carried by wind in many species and by water in a few

function of reproduction

producing offspring that have identical copies of the parental genes

generating new individuals that are genetically different from the parents

strawberries

have flowers and sexual reproduction involving genetically diverse embryos and seeds, but they also spread rapidly and asexually by runners

bamboos

perennial grasses that flower and set seed only occasionally (in some species, only once every 80 years), but their rhizomes grow vigorously and establish many new plants asexually.

Kalanchoes

produce large numbers of seeds each year, but they also produce such large numbers of plantlets along their leaf margins that they can be weeds in both nature and in greenhouses

fragmentation

large spreading or vining plant grows to several meters in length, and individual parts become self-sufficient by establishing adventitious roots.

bulbils

in some members of the saxifrage, grass, and pineapple families, plantlets are formed where flowers would be expected

these look like small bulbs

Adventitious buds

may grow out even while the parent plant is still alive, and a small cluster of trees may in fact consist of just a single individual

gametes

sex cells: egg and sperm cells

formed by the haploid plants by mitosis, not meiosis

zygote

fertilized egg

diploid

inherits mitochondria and a nucleus from the egg, a nucleus and plastids from the sperm cell

sporophytes

trees, shrubs, herbs

always diploid

have organs with cells capable of undergoing meiosis

spores

meiosis product

haploid

syngamy or fertilization

spores fusing with gametes

involves plasmogamy and karyogamy

plant spores

cannot undergo syngamy

undergo mitosis and grows into gametophyte

gametophyte

entire new haploid plant

produces gametes

does not resemble diploid sporophyte

tiny mass of cells with no roots, stems, leaves, or vascular tissues

plant life cycle

diploid sporophyte > meiosis > haploid spores > mitosis > haploid gametophyte > gametes > syngamy > diploid sporophyte

oogamy

sperms are produced by one type of individual and eggs by a different one

microgametophytes

male gametes

microspores > mitosis > vegetative cell + generative cell > 2 sperm cells

very small and simple, consisting of at most three cells located within the original pollen cell wall

megagametophytes

female gametes

from megaspores

has seven cells, one of which is binucleate

alternation of generation

with two generations: sporophyte and gametophyte

alternation of heteromorphic generations

gametophytes do not resemble sporophytes at all

complex life cycle, with at least three distinct plants (one sporophyte and two gametophytes)

human life cycle

receptacle

end of the axis

where other parts are attached

floral appendages

sepals

petals

stamens

carpels

complete flowers

have three, four, five or more appendages of each type

have sepals, petals, stamen, pistil

lilies

incomplete flowers

incomplete appendages

begonia

perianth

Sepals and petals together

stamen

collectively, androecium

above the petals

male part of the flower because they produce pollen

comprised of filament and anther that produce pollen

anther

composed of diploid cells

four columns of tissue become distinct as some cells enlarge and prepare for meiosis

microsporocytes

microspore mother cells

anther cells that enlarge and undergo meiosis

tapetum

layer where neighboring anther cells act as nurse cells and contribute to microspore development and maturation

microspores

initially remain together in a tetrad, but later separate, expand to a characteristic shape, and form an especially resistant wall

becomes pollen

dehisce

opening of anther, releasing pollen

intine

inner layer of pollen grain wall

composed of cellulose

exine

outer layer of pollen grain wall

consists of polymer, sporopollenin

can have ridges, bumps, spines, and numerous other features so characteristic that

each species has its own particular pattern

germination pores

weak spots in pollen grain wall where pollen opens after it had been carried to stigma of another flower

Sporopollenin

remarkably waterproof and resistant to almost all chemicals;

it protects the pollen grain and keeps it from drying out as it is being carried by wind or animals

carpel

collectively, pistil

highest level on receptacle

stigma, style, ovary

stigma

catches pollen

style

elevates stigma to useful position

ovary

where megaspores are produced

pistil

collectively, gynoecium

carpels fused together into single compound structure

placentae

regions of tissue inside ovary that bear small structures

ovules

small structures inside placentae

have a short stalk (funiculus) that carries water and nutrients from placenta to the ovule via vascular bundle

nucellus

ovule’s central mass of parenchyma

Around this are two thin sheets of cells (integuments) that cover almost its entire surface, leaving only a small hole (micropyle) at the top

megasporocytes

megaspore mother cells in nucellus

do not dehisce and megaspore remains inside the carpel

raceme

major inflorescence axis, and the flowers are borne on pedicels that are all approximately the same length

panicle

branched raceme with several flowers per branch.

corymb

Flowers in a flat or slightly rounded cluster with varying stem lengths.

spike

similar to a raceme except that the flowers are sessile, lacking a pedicel

umbel

inflorescence stalk ends in a small rounded portion from which arise numerous flowers

Their pedicels are long and arranged so that all flowers sit at the same height, forming a flat disk.

head

similar to an umbel except that the flowers are sessile and attached to a broad expansion of the inflorescence stalk

compound umbel

Umbel where each main stem ends in another smaller umbel

cyme

Flat or round cluster with central flowers blooming first

spadix

spikelike inflorescence with imperfect flowers, but both types occur in the same inflorescence, most often with staminate flowers located in the upper portion of the inflorescence and carpellate flowers in the lower portion, although they can intermingle.

The main inflorescence axis is thick and fleshy with minute flowers embedded in it

multiple flowers parts

perfect flowers

have both male and female reproductive structures within the same flower

imperfect flowers

lack one of the reproductive structures, either male or female.

monoecious plants

have both male and female flowers on the same individual plant

dioecious plants

have separate male and female plants

polypetalous

multiple petals

apopetalous

separate petals

apetalous

no petals

gamopetalous

fused petals

bracts

modified leaf that protects flower

hypogynous or superior

perigynous or hemi-inferior

epigynous or inferior

actinomorphic or regular flower

has radial symmetry

zygomorphic or irregular flower

has bilateral symmetry

bilabiate flower

two-lipped flower

has fused calyx and corolla tube

papilionaceous flower

for legumes

has banner, wings, keels

banner

outermost and largest part of flower

wings

lateral parts

aka alae

keels

two innermost and smallest petal

aka carinae

orchidaceous flower

has wings, and lip which helps identify species

composite flowers

cluster of small individual flowers grouped together to form a single, larger flower-like structure

ray flower

outermost flower in composite flowers

resemble petals

disc flowers

central tubular-shaped flowers within composite flower head

consists of a tubular corolla with five fused petals and reproductive structures

rachis

central axis of a flower cluster

central stalk of a compound leaf, from which the leaflets are attached

spathe

large, often leaf-like bract that surrounds or encloses a flower cluster or inflorescence

serves for protection, attraction, temperature regulation, and odor emission

pollination

transfer of pollen from male anther to female stigma

abiotic pollen vectors

anemophily

hydrophily

anemophily

wind pollination

reduced perianth

synchronous flowering

pollen storage - starch

hydrophily

water pollination

surface

submerged

entomophily

pollination via insects (bees, beetles, butterflies, flies)

chiropterophily

pollination via bats

ornithophily

pollination via birds

placentation

how ovules are attached to placenta

parietal

marginal

axile

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