Studied by 4 people
Motivations
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
Substance use disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
Instinct Theory
A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses (instincts)
Instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
Evolutionary perspective
perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share
Drive-Reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
physiological needs
those relating to the basic biological necessities of life: food, drink, rest, and shelter
drives
Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism
homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
incentive theory
A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.
arousal theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self
purpose
the reason for which something is done or created or for which something exists.
significance
the quality of being worthy of attention; importance.
coherence
A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible.
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues
lateral hypothalamus
The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals
ventromedial nucleus
a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center
arcuate nucleus
hypothalamic area with sets of neurons for hunger and satiety
paraventricular nucleus
A nucleus of the hypothalamus implicated in the release of oxytocin and vasopressin, and in the control of feeding and other behaviors.
vagus nerve
the tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart and other areas
ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
orexin
hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
PYY
digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain
CCK
produced by the small intestine when you eat and tells brain you're full, suppressing appetite
set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy output
neophobia
fear of new things
ecology of eating
Social influences and portion size affect the amount of food we eat
BMI
a measure of body weight relative to height
palatability
the better food tastes, the more of it people consume
obesity
having an excess amount of body fat
heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
asexual
having no sexual attraction to others
Testosterone
Male sex hormone
estrogens
A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions.
human sexual response cycle
A sequence of four stages that characterizes the sexual response in both men and women: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
parental investment
What each sex invests—in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities—to produce and nurture offspring.
social animal
Animal that lives in a multigenerational group in which members, who are usually relatives, cooperate in some tasks.
affiliation need
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group
autonomy
independence
competence
having enough skills to do something
anxiety attachment
amount of fear of rejection, abandonment
avoidance attachment
A style of attachment in which children act as if they are unconcerned about being separated from their mothers- These children may be showing the effects of repeated rejections in the past
ostracism
exclusion from a society or group
anterior cingulate cortex
the cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus, which is involved in the emotional reaction to painful stimulation
social networking
the use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself.
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
motivation to achieve
is a function of the relative strengths of the motive or tendency to approach success or avoid failure
grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
emotions
signals that tell your mind and body how to react
common-sense theory
stimulus -> perception -> emotion -> bodily arousal
James-Lange Theory
Arousal comes before emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory
theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to emotion and to bodily reactions
appraisal
an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal
spillover effect
arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event
zajonc-ledoux theory
theory that some emotional responses occur instantly; sometimes we feel before we think
lazarus theory
Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response
reappraisal
changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.
nonrepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood
insula
regions of cortex located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes (helps with taste)
polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).
concealed information test
An approach to interrogating criminal suspects focusing on relevant concealed knowledge in the suspect's mind, not the truthfulness of his/her statements. Such information is particularly important when only a guilty individual would know it.
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
gestures
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another
facial expressions
configuration of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or appear unrelated to a speaker's vocal delivery
primary emotions
Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.
Darwin's Evolutionary Theory
all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
display rules
culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
facial feedback hypothesis
the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
stress reaction
the physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to autonomic nervous system arousal
stressors
specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being
catastrophes
unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us
significant life changes
personal events; life transitions
daily hassles
everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health
acculturative stress
stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture
motivational conflicts theory
when an organism is in conflict between two opposite motives (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance)
approach-approach conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives
avoidance-avoidance conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives
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