a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
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Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
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Extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
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Overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
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Substance use disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
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Instinct Theory
A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses (instincts)
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Instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
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Evolutionary perspective
perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share
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Drive-Reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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physiological needs
those relating to the basic biological necessities of life: food, drink, rest, and shelter
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drives
Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism
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homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
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incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
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incentive theory
A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.
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arousal theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
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hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
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self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
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self-transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self
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purpose
the reason for which something is done or created or for which something exists.
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significance
the quality of being worthy of attention; importance.
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coherence
A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible.
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glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
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insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues
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lateral hypothalamus
The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals
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ventromedial nucleus
a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center
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arcuate nucleus
hypothalamic area with sets of neurons for hunger and satiety
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paraventricular nucleus
A nucleus of the hypothalamus implicated in the release of oxytocin and vasopressin, and in the control of feeding and other behaviors.
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vagus nerve
the tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart and other areas
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ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
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hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
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orexin
hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
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PYY
digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain
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CCK
produced by the small intestine when you eat and tells brain you're full, suppressing appetite
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set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
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basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy output
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neophobia
fear of new things
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ecology of eating
Social influences and portion size affect the amount of food we eat
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BMI
a measure of body weight relative to height
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palatability
the better food tastes, the more of it people consume
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obesity
having an excess amount of body fat
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heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
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asexual
having no sexual attraction to others
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Testosterone
Male sex hormone
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estrogens
A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions.
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human sexual response cycle
A sequence of four stages that characterizes the sexual response in both men and women: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
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refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
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sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
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parental investment
What each sex invests—in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities—to produce and nurture offspring.
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social animal
Animal that lives in a multigenerational group in which members, who are usually relatives, cooperate in some tasks.
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affiliation need
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group
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autonomy
independence
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competence
having enough skills to do something
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anxiety attachment
amount of fear of rejection, abandonment
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avoidance attachment
A style of attachment in which children act as if they are unconcerned about being separated from their mothers- These children may be showing the effects of repeated rejections in the past
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ostracism
exclusion from a society or group
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anterior cingulate cortex
the cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus, which is involved in the emotional reaction to painful stimulation
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social networking
the use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself.
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self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
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achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
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motivation to achieve
is a function of the relative strengths of the motive or tendency to approach success or avoid failure
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grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to emotion and to bodily reactions
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appraisal
an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
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Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal
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spillover effect
arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event
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zajonc-ledoux theory
theory that some emotional responses occur instantly; sometimes we feel before we think
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lazarus theory
Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response
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reappraisal
changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus
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autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
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parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
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sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
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epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.
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nonrepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood
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insula
regions of cortex located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes (helps with taste)
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polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).
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concealed information test
An approach to interrogating criminal suspects focusing on relevant concealed knowledge in the suspect's mind, not the truthfulness of his/her statements. Such information is particularly important when only a guilty individual would know it.
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egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
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empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
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gestures
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another
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facial expressions
configuration of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or appear unrelated to a speaker's vocal delivery
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primary emotions
Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.
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Darwin's Evolutionary Theory
all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
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display rules
culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
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facial feedback hypothesis
the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
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behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions
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stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
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stress reaction
the physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to autonomic nervous system arousal
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stressors
specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being
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catastrophes
unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us
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significant life changes
personal events; life transitions
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daily hassles
everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health
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acculturative stress
stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture
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motivational conflicts theory
when an organism is in conflict between two opposite motives (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance)
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approach-approach conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives
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avoidance-avoidance conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives
Studied by 4 people
