Ap psych ch 7

motivation and personality

Motivations

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Overjustification effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

Substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Instinct Theory

A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses (instincts)

Instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Evolutionary perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share

Drive-Reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

physiological needs

those relating to the basic biological necessities of life: food, drink, rest, and shelter

drives

Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

incentive theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

purpose

the reason for which something is done or created or for which something exists.

significance

the quality of being worthy of attention; importance.

coherence

A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible.

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues

lateral hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals

ventromedial nucleus

a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center

arcuate nucleus

hypothalamic area with sets of neurons for hunger and satiety

paraventricular nucleus

A nucleus of the hypothalamus implicated in the release of oxytocin and vasopressin, and in the control of feeding and other behaviors.

vagus nerve

the tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart and other areas

ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

PYY

digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

CCK

produced by the small intestine when you eat and tells brain you're full, suppressing appetite

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy output

neophobia

fear of new things

ecology of eating

Social influences and portion size affect the amount of food we eat

BMI

a measure of body weight relative to height

palatability

the better food tastes, the more of it people consume

obesity

having an excess amount of body fat

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

Testosterone

Male sex hormone

estrogens

A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions.

human sexual response cycle

A sequence of four stages that characterizes the sexual response in both men and women: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

parental investment

What each sex invests—in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities—to produce and nurture offspring.

social animal

Animal that lives in a multigenerational group in which members, who are usually relatives, cooperate in some tasks.

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

autonomy

independence

competence

having enough skills to do something

anxiety attachment

amount of fear of rejection, abandonment

avoidance attachment

A style of attachment in which children act as if they are unconcerned about being separated from their mothers- These children may be showing the effects of repeated rejections in the past

ostracism

exclusion from a society or group

anterior cingulate cortex

the cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus, which is involved in the emotional reaction to painful stimulation

social networking

the use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself.

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

motivation to achieve

is a function of the relative strengths of the motive or tendency to approach success or avoid failure

grit

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

emotions

signals that tell your mind and body how to react

common-sense theory

stimulus -\> perception -\> emotion -\> bodily arousal

James-Lange Theory

Arousal comes before emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to emotion and to bodily reactions

appraisal

an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

spillover effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event

zajonc-ledoux theory

theory that some emotional responses occur instantly; sometimes we feel before we think

lazarus theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response

reappraisal

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.

nonrepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

insula

regions of cortex located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes (helps with taste)

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

concealed information test

An approach to interrogating criminal suspects focusing on relevant concealed knowledge in the suspect's mind, not the truthfulness of his/her statements. Such information is particularly important when only a guilty individual would know it.

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

empathy

the ability to understand and share the feelings of another

gestures

the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another

facial expressions

configuration of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or appear unrelated to a speaker's vocal delivery

primary emotions

Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.

Darwin's Evolutionary Theory

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display

facial feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

stress reaction

the physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to autonomic nervous system arousal

stressors

specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

catastrophes

unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us

significant life changes

personal events; life transitions

daily hassles

everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health

acculturative stress

stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture

motivational conflicts theory

when an organism is in conflict between two opposite motives (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance)

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives