criminal investigations exam #2

physical evidence

also known as forensic evidence, this is evidence that can be seen, held, and created as the direct result of a crime. (EX: gloves, gun, hair)

Class characteristics

features of forensic evidence that allow to be associated with a group of sources (ex: teeth, bite marks)

individual characteristics

features of forensic evidence that allow it to be associated with a particular source (DNA)

crime scene

-          where the crime occurred or where evidence may be located

neighborhood canvas

involves the door-to-door questioning of residents who live near the crime scene (not as helpful, but can sometimes be helpful)

cross-contamination

occurs when the investigations inadvertently transfer evidence from one scene to another

arriving at the scene

cautious approach; legality of entering crime scene; active threats; medical intervention; secured scene; boundaries within the scene; investigation process

locard’s exchange principle

 holds that whenever an individual encounters a place or another person, something of that individual is left behind, and something of that place or other person is taken with the individual (anywhere you go, you leave your mark; anywhere you encounter, it leaves a mark on you)

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

the genetic building block of all living organisms unique to an individual, except identical twins.

DNA analysis

the process of extracting DNA from cells

nuclear DNA

a form of DNA unique to an individual

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

DNA inherited only from one’s biological mother

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

the most technique of analyzing DNA today

Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)

a national database operated by the FBI that contains DNA profiles from various sources; it is used to identify offenders based on their DNA profiles

Familial DNA Searching (FDS)

also known as genetic genealogy, involves searching for similar but not exact DNA matches in a DNA database

DNA Sweep

a tactic that involves the collection of DNA from people who could have committed the crime in question and comparing these DNA profiles to the DNA of the perpetrator that was recovered from the crime scene or victim

DNA Phenotyping

a process that involves using DNA to obtain information about the donor’s facial characteristics, such as hair color, eye color, face shape, skin tone, and the presence of freckles.

Rapid DNA

a fully automated process whereby a DNA profile can quickly and relatively cheaply be developed from a buccal swab taken from a subject

Bluestar forensic

a chemical used to make blood otherwise invisible to the naked eye but visible via luminescence

epithelial cells

human tissue cells that cover internal body surfaces and can be used for DNA analysis

touch DNA

the DNA analysis of cells discarded simply from touching an object

secondary transfer

DNA transfer between objects or persons via another person or object

friction ridge analysis

a formal name for fingerprint analysis; it involves the examination of the ride structures of fingers (or hands or feet)

latent prints

fingerprints made when oils and perspiration on fingertips are transferred to a surface and made visible only using various forensic techniques

automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS)

a database that contains fingerprints collected from various known sources; it is used to identify unknown fingertips

next generation identification (NGI)

a national fingerprint and biometric database operated by the FBI

National integrated Ballistic Information Network (BIBIN):

a national database operated by the ATF that contains bullet and cartridge casing images and is designed to link bullets/casings fired from the same gun

criminalistics

an area of forensic science that relates to the analysis of physical evidence

forensic pathology

an area of forensic science that relates to the study of dead bodies (When, how, and where did they die)

forensic anthropology

-          the area of forensic science that relates to the study of skeletal remains

investigative interview

a non-accusatory questioning of a person, usually a witness, intended to produce information about a crime or a perpetrator

primary witness

witnesses who have direct knowledge of a crime or perpetrator

eyewitness

a witness who personally saw a crime occur

modus operandi (MO)

also referred to as method of operation, the way the perpetrator committed the crime (unique signature)

secondary witness

witnesses with information about events before or after the crime

show-up identification

a method of eyewitness identification that involves a witness viewing a suspect shortly after the crime occurred

photo lineup

-          a method of eyewitness identification that involves a witness viewing photos of a suspect and other subjects presented to the witness under the direction of an investigator

live lineup

a method of eyewitness identification that involves a witness viewing a suspect and other subject in a controlled setting under the direction of an investigator

encoding stage

the first stage of memory during which events and other stimuli are noticed

retention stage

the second stage of memory during which information is placed in memory

retrieval stage

the final memory stage during which stored information is recalled

weapon of focus effect

a phenomenon whereby witnesses tend to focus exclusively on the presence of the weapon used during the commission of a crime to the detriment of other details about the event

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that fear and stress improve eyewitness performance up to a certain point but then become counterproductive

Relative-judgment process

in a lineup situation, the tendency of a witness to identify the person who most closely resembles the perpetrator, even though that person might not actually be the perpetrator

Guidelines for witness evidence

The eyewitness’s opportunity to view, The attention paid by the eyewitness, The accuracy of the witness’s preliminary description of the culprit, The certainty of the eyewitness, The amount of time between the event and the attempt to identify

Sequential lineup

lineup procedure whereby subjects are viewed by a witness individually, one at a time

simultaneous lineup

lineup procedure whereby subjects are viewed by a witness all at the same time

hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness characterized by increased responsiveness to suggestion. Intended to stimulate a witness’s memory, it is frequently used in criminal investigations today

confabulation

inaccurate information that may be produced because of hypnosis

cognitive interview

an approach to investigative interviewing designed to elicit accurate details from a witness’s memory based on deep concentration

interrogation

any questioning or other action intended to elicit incriminating information from a subject when this information is intended to be used in a criminal prosecution

confession

a statement made by a subject that he or she committed a crime

false confession

a statement made by a subject that he or she committed a crime when, in fact, the subject did not commit the crime

prerequisites for productive interrogations

A plan, Adequate time, Control of the interrogation, An understanding of the facts of the case, Familiarity with the suspect’s background, A good relationship with the suspect, Familiarity with various themes, approaches, and tactics

Reid technique

the traditional approach to criminal interrogations relies heavily on stress, deception, and control. Convince to confess.

emotional officer

 an offender who is likely to experience considerable feelings of remorse regarding the crime. Certain interrogation approaches may be more effective with this type of offender.

nonemotionally offender

an offender who is not likely to experience a troubled conscience or guilt. Certain interrogation approaches may be more effective with this type of offender.

Rationalization, projection, and minimization (RPM)

defense mechanisms that, when emphasized in an interrogation, may lead perpetrators to confess.

confession progression phenomenon

the tendency of suspects to provide a confession one detail at a time, over time, instead of giving a complete confession all at once

PEACE Model

an approach to interrogations intended to communicate effectively and respectfully with suspects to obtain accurate information from them (more modern approach) P = planning and preparation E = engage and explain A = account, clarify, and challenge (sledgehammer technique) C = closure E = evaluation

deception techniques

lying, thick folder, phone call, fabricated evidence, computer voice stress analyzer, scanning election microscopy

stress-complaint false confession

a type of false confession given to stop the misery and stress of the interrogation

Persuaded false confessions

a false confession given as the result of being convinced one has committed the crime

voluntary false confession

type of false confession voluntarily given due to other motivations

polygraph

a machine designed to measure physiological reactions to stress due to deception (Factors in age, gender, height, weight, pretest to get a baseline, Tracks breathing, heart rate)

Relevant-irrelevant test (RIT)

a polygraph examination method in which questions pertinent to the crime are asked along with irrelevant questions; due to frequent errors, the use of this method has declined

guilty knowledge technique (GKT)

a polygraph examination method in which multiple-choice questions and answers are provided to subjects. AKA concealed information test

control (or comparison) question technique (CQT)

a polygraph examination method in which questions relevant to a crime in question are asked along with other psychologically arousing control questions; it is the most frequently used polygraph method today

Computer voice stress analyzer (CVSA)

a machine that purports to detect deception from stress in one’s voice; research evidence does not support using the machine

crime profiling

 a technique of assessing a crime and how it was committed to infer the characteristics of the person who committed it; also known as psychological, crime scene, or behavioral profiling

signature

the reason why the crime was committed; what was done by the offender to derive psychological or emotional satisfaction from the crime

souvenirs

items or personal effects taken by an offender as the result of a crime that serves as a memory of the victim and crime (Taking jewelry from a victim)

trophies

items taken by an offender with intrinsic value to the offender, a reward (Not in relation to the crime but because of the crime)

homology assumption

the principle that offenders with similar crime behaviors share similar characteristics

constructing a crime scene profile

Develop an understanding of the crime, Examine the characteristics and activities of the victim, The suspected motivation for the crime, Characteristics of individuals who have committed this type of crime previously, Description of the characteristics of the perpetrator

organized crime scene

likely to be orderly and reflect a high degree of control. The scene tends to be neat, even clean. There is usually little, or no evidence present at the scene

disorganized crime scene

likely to be sloppy and disorderly. Evidence, including a weapon, is often present at the scene. (more common than organized crime scenes)

victim risk

an assessment of how prone the victim was to victimization

staging

the introduction of false clues by an offender to mislead an investigation

comfort zone

the geographic area where a person spends the most time

anchor points

the places within a comfort zone where a person spends the most time

cognitive map

the familiar routes between anchor points in the comfort zone

distance decay

the principle that the likelihood of committing a crime decreases as the distance from the offender’s residence increases

Journey to crime

the distance an offender travels to commit a crime

buffer zone

an area around the offender’s residence where he or she is strongly inclined not to commit a crime

psycholinguistics

an analysis of the offender’s written or spoken words to infer the characteristics of the offender, link crimes, or discover hidden meanings (Lingo, accent, terminology, the zodiac killer letter)

crime analysis

studying crime patterns and characteristics to identify offenders

geospatial crime analysis

a crime analysis that identifies and predicts where crimes will occur

intelligence-led policing

a crime analysis that identifies and predicts who will commit crimes

cockroach theory

the notion that certain times and places that have experienced more crime will also experience more crime in the future

geospatial mapping

Demographic characteristics of the population, Locations of various businesses (e.g., taverns and other alcohol outlets), Residence of parolees (e.g., sex offenders), Gang territories, Known and suspected drug houses, Locations of traffic stops and field interviews, Calls for service/shots fired calls

computer-aided dispatch (CAD) system

computer systems operated within police agencies that include data on calls for service, traffic stops, field interviews, and other patrol officer activities

records management system (RMS)

computer systems operated within police agencies store information such as crime reports, arrest reports, traffic citations, phone numbers, and/or other information related to police-citizen contacts

Violent criminal apprehension program (VICAP)

-          operated by the FBI, an example of a crime analysis system based on the MO of the offender and other crime characteristics

Digital evidence

crime-related information retrieved from an electronic device

Smartphone

a device that can be used for voice calls, text messaging, internet access, and multimedia and software applications

burner phone

a cell phone with voice and text messaging capabilities but cannot connect to the internet. They are called burner phones because they are inexpensive and thus easily disposable

content of smartphones

phone calls, text history, photos, videos, GPS location, and internet history

Graykey

a device, when connected to a locked smartphone, makes repeated guesses at passcodes until it is successful, and the phone is unlocked

cellebrite

a brand of software/hardware used to extract data from the memory of cell phones and other electronic devices, even when that data has been deleted