Environmental Regulations Exam #1

Environmental laws

enacted by legislative bodies, provide a broad framework for environmental protection

Environmental regulations

Created by executive agencies like EPA, they specify how to implement and enforce laws, often with more technical details

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

a comprehensive compilation of federal regulations, organized by title and part

TCEQ (Texas Commission on Environmental Quality) 

State agency with authority within Texas, implementing and enforcing federal and state enviornmnetal regulations

In the case of conflicting limits, the MORE STRINGENT limit (often the state agency) takes priority

EPA oversights state programs

NEPA

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) process and application

State Implementation Plans (SIPs)

A 1970 Clean Air Act amendment 

Required states to create and enforce plans to meet these standards 

What is the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)?

The centerpiece of the Clean Air Act

Established two types of standards:

• Primary standards

• Secondary standards 

Primary Standards for NAAQS

Establishes limits to protect health

Includes the health of sensitive populations such as children and elders

Secondary Standards for NAAQS

Protect public welfare

Protection against decreased visibility, damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings 

How does acid rain form?

Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine

What type of source accounts for more than half of all air pollution?

Mobile sources

Ex: automobile

Mobile source standards

Designed to primarily reduce the emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides

Ex: In 1975, the EPA required the use of lead-free gasoline in new cars  

Oxygenate additives

Lead

Ethanol (MTBE)

1990 amendments also required oxygenated gasoline to be sold in the worst carbon monoxide nonattainment areas

Point Sources

Pollution discharged from industrial facilities and municipal wastewater treatment plants

Nonpoint-source 

Accounts for more than half of water pollution in the United States

• Oil, chemical, and debris from stormwater runoff

• Excess of fertilizers from agricultural runoff

• Bacteria and nutrients from septic systems or livestock

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)

Requires any entity discharging pollutants from a point source into the nation’s water to obtain a permit

• NPDES permits protect the intended use of the receiving water

Conventional pollutants

• Biochemical oxygen demand

• Total suspended solids

• Fecal coliform

• pH

• Oil and grease 

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic microorganisms to break down organic matter in water

• Conventional pollutant

• Measures over a 5 day period

• High BOD = High organic pollution

• Leads to oxygen depletion

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic compounds using a strong oxidizing agent

• A quick measure of the organic pollutants in water 

• Measured in a 2-3 hour period

• High = High pollution (likely organic)

• Leads to oxygen depletion

What are the types of contaminants

Contaminants are broadly defined and regulated based on their source, impact, and treatability

• Conventional

• Toxic

• Nonconventional

Conventional pollutants

• Biochemical oxygen demand

• Total suspended solids

• Fecal coliform

• pH

• Oil and grease

Toxic pollutants

• EPA has identified 65 pollutants as “toxic pollutants”

• 126 specific substances have been designated “priority” toxic pollutants

• Most are from the petrochemical industry 

Nonconventional pollutants

• Nutrients

• Color 

Wastewater treatment basics

Primary Treatment: includes screening, grit removal, and primary clarification

Secondary Treatment: biological treatment, secondary clarification, and disinfection

An optional tertiary treatment including Nitrogen and phosphorus removal

Primary Treatment

Removing large debris and grit from wastewater

Secondary Treatment

Using biological processes to break down organic matter in the wastewater, and finally disinfection

Tertiary Wastewater Treatment

Aimed at reducing nutrient pollution before discharged into receiving waters

Typically involves biological nitrification and denitrification, where ammonia is oxidized to nitrate and then converted to nitrogen gas 

• Helps prevent eutrophication, protects aquatic ecosystems, and supports compliance with water quality standards 

Water Quality Standards

regulatory benchmarks that define the desired condition of a water body and the pollutant limits needed to protect it

• Designated uses

• Water quality criteria

• Antidegradation policy

Designates uses of Water Quality Standards

NDPES permits must protect the intended use of the recieving water

Water quality criteria and Water Quality Standards

If technology-based limits are NOT sufficient to meet the designated criteria, permits must include Water-Quality Based Effluent Limits 

Antidegradation policy and Water Quality Standards

Permits must ensure that existing high-quality waters are preserved

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

established to protect the quality of drinking water in the U.S.

Focuses on ALL WATER actually or potentially designed for drinking use, whether from above ground or underground sources

What were the main regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act? 

National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), Protect public health

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations: Aesthetic or cosmetic effects

Contaminant Candidate List (CCL)

What are National Primary Drinking Water Regulations?

Legally enforceable standards that apply to public water systems

Primary standards protect public health by limiting the levels of contaminants in drinking water

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations

Non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic or aesthetic effects in drinking water

EPA does NOT enforce these

Ex: iron, silver, fluoride, zinc and sulfate

What is the Contaminant Candidate List?

A list of unregulated contaminants used to prioritize research and data collection efforts to help the EPA determine whether a specific contaminant should be regulated

Contaminants listed are anticipated to occur in public water systems

They are currently unregulated by existing national primary drinking water regulations

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)

The maximum allowable amount of a contaminant in drinking water which is delivered to the consumer 

Established to protect the public against consumption of drinking water contaminants that present a risk to human health

What do MCLs regulate? 

• Microorganisms like Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and viruses

• Disinfectants and their by-products like chlorine

• Inorganic chemicals such as arsenic, copper, cyanide, lead, nitrate, and mercury

• Organic chemicals like benzene

• Radioactive particles (radionuclides) such as radium and uranium 

Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCLs)

Aesthetic effects: odor, taste, color

• High levels of chloride can cause a salty taste

• Excessive iron can cause a metallic taste and discoloration

Cosmetic: skin discoloration, tooth discoloration 

• Excessive fluoride exposure leads to tooth discoloration

• Silver ingestion can cause a condition known as argyria, resulting in skin discoloration

Technical effects: corrosivity, staining, scaling, sedimentation

• Corrosive water damages pipes and fixtures, leading to reduced water flow and staining, and sedimentation can clog pipes and reduce water quality 

What are the 7 contaminants that are regulated by the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation?

Microorganisms

Disinfectants

Disinfectant Byproducts

Inorganic Chemicals

Organic Chemicals

Radionuclides

Forever Chemicals 

Microorganisms

Health risks: gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, nausea, vomiting), fever, abdominal cramps

Ex: fecal coliforms, viruses/parasites, giardia

Giardia is one of the MOST COMMON causes of waterborne disease in the U.S.

Disinfectants

Chemicals used to kill or inactivate microorganisms in drinking water

Play a crucial role in preventing the spread of waterborne diseases 

• Residual concentration can cause health issues

Ex: Chlorine, Chloramine, Chlorine dioxide 

Disinfection byproducts

When disinfectants react with organic matter in the water, they can form disinfection byproducts (DBPs)

Ex:Trihalomethanes, Haloacetic acids

• Excessive exposure has been linked to health risks, including cancer and reproductive problems  

Inorganic chemicals

Are both naturally occuring and found in man-made substances

Enter drinking water through:

•Natural sources: Rocks, minerals, and soil

 •Industrial activities: Mining, manufacturing, and waste disposal

•Agricultural activities: Fertilizer and pesticide use

•Corrosion of pipes and plumbing fixtures

Ex: Arsenic, lead, nitrate, fluoride, copper 

What methods do public water systems use to prevent inorganic chemicals from contaminating drinking water? 

• Filtration: Removing contaminants through physical processes

• Ion exchange: Exchanging harmful ions for less harmful ones

• Reverse osmosis: Filtering water through a semipermiable membrane 

• Lime softening: Removing hardness-causing minerals like calcium and magnesium 

Arsenic

Significant concern in drinking water due to its toxicity and widespread occurrence

Can naturally occur in groundwater, and be introduced through agriculture or industrial activities

• Through erosion, dissolution, and weathering, arsenic can be released to groundwater or surface water 

Health Effects: Acute exposure can lead to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, neuropathy, and a sensation of "pins and needles" in hands and feet.

Inorganic arsenic may increase the risk of lung, skin, bladder, liver, kidney, and prostate cancer.

Nitrate

Nitrogen-containing compound found in surface water and groundwater

While not generally harmful to adults, it can pose a serious health risk to infants

• Elevated levels in water usually result from human activities such as overuse of chemical fertilizers and improper disposal of human and animal wastes

• nitrites in the stomach and intestines may contribute to the development of some cancers.

Organic Chemicals

are compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. They can enter drinking water through various sources, including:

•Natural sources: Organic matter from plants, animals, and soil

•Industrial activities: Manufacturing processes, waste disposal, and oil spills

•Agricultural activities: Pesticide and herbicide use

•Household products: Cleaning supplies, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Organic chemicals that evaporate easily at room temperature. Examples include benzene, toluene, and xylene.

Pesticides: Chemicals used to control pests, including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides.

Pharmaceuticals: Prescription and over-the-counter drugs that can enter water through wastewater treatment plants or septic systems.

Radionuclides

Excess exposure to radiation can pose health risks

Most atoms are stable in their structur, however at times they can become unstable and release particles that can be harmful

SDWA limits the amount of radionuclides in water 

Naturally occurring radionuclides: These are radioactive elements that occur naturally in rocks, soil, and water. Examples include uranium, radium, and radon.

Human activities: Nuclear power plants, nuclear waste disposal, and medical procedures can release radioactive materials into the environment.

What are some health risks associated with Radiation in Drinking Water?

•Cancer: Exposure to excessive levels of radiation over time can increase the risk of developing cancer.

•Genetic defects: Radiation can damage DNA, leading to genetic defects in offspring.

•Other health problems: High levels of radiation can also cause a variety of other health issues, including thyroid disease and infertility.

Forever chemicals

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals that have been used in a wide variety of industrial and consumer products since the 1940s. Due to their unique properties, PFAS have been widely used in non-stick cookware, water-repellent clothing, fire-fighting foams, and other products.

On April 10, 2024, EPA announced the final National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) for six PFAS

Contaminant Candidate List (CCL)

List of drinking water contaminants that are known or anticipated to occur in public water systems and are NOT currently subject to EPA drinking water regulations 

• EPA maintains the contaminant candidate list

• Developing the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) is the first step in evaluating drinking water contaminants, like PFAS

Quiz 2

Which event significantly shaped or is a symbol of the development of environmental laws in the United States?

Fire in the Cuyahoga River

What best describes the difference between environmental laws and environmental regulations?

Laws are enacted by legislative bodies

Regulations are created by executive agencies

What are the steps involved in the legislative process for creating environmental laws?

Public hearings, Presidential veto, and Bill introduction 

What is the primary purpose of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)?

Provides a comprehensive compilation of federal regulations

The Environmental Protection Agency plays a crucial role in enforcing environmental laws. Which is a primary function of the EPA?

Developing and implementing environmental regulations

Conducting environmental research 

Provide technical assistance to states 

What is the primary difference between the EPA and the TCEQ?

The EPA is a federal agency, while the TCEQ is a state agency

What is an Environmental Impact Statement?

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires federal agencies to prepare and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for major projects.

What is the primary purpose of an EIS?

To asses the potential environmental impacts of a project  

Scenario: A chemical plant in Texas is discharging wastewater into a nearby river. The TCEQ has set a more stringent limit for a particular pollutant in the wastewater than the limit established by the EPA through a federal regulation

Which agency’s limit should the chemical plant adhere to?

TCEQ’s agency limit 

Quiz 3 

Which of the following WAS NOT a major provision of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990?

Created regulations for 6 main air contaminants

Which of the following WAS a major provision of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990?

Established a cap-and-trade program for acid rain

Strengthened provisions for nonattainment areas

Implemented a reformulated gasoline program

What is the main difference between primary and secondary NAAQS?

Primary NAAQS protect public health

Secondary NAAQS protect public welfare

What are the health effects associated with particulate matter (PM)?

Respiratory problems, cardiovascular disease, and premature death

How does acid rain form?

When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere 

What does Air quality monitoring provide data on?

Provides data on pollutant levels, which can be used to assess air quality trends, identify pollution hotspots, and inform policy decisions

What were the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970?

Instructed the U.S. EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health from exposure of six main air pollutants, including CO

How can the Clean Air Act be effectively modernized to ensure both public health protection and sustainable economic growth in the United States?

Implement balanced regulation on all industries and sectors to reduce emissions

Increase international cooperation to address global air pollution issues and share best practices

Create or fund novel technologies to monitor and remove contaminants form air 

Based on teh findings of the COVID paper, which of the following best describes the relationships between short-term air pollution exposure and COVID-19 infection risk in the United States? 

Short-term exposure to PM2.5 is significantly associated with increased COVID-19 infection risk, while exposure to O3 has a weaker association 

Quiz 4

Which event became a powerful symbol of industrial pollution, helping to spur the passage of the Clean Water Act?

Fire in Cuyahoga river 

The Clean Water Act of 1972 established the fundamental structure for regulating water pollution in the United States

What was the law’s primary target? 

To protect navigable waters from pollution 

What is Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and what does it measure?

What is a direct consequence of elevated content of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies? 

Eutrophication 

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between BOD5 and COD in wastewater treatment?

BOD5 only considers biodegradable organic matter, while COD considers both biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter

The Clean Water Act distinguishes between different types of pollution sources.

Which of the following is a classic example of point source pollution? 

Industrial wastewater discharge

What are examples of point source pollution?

After large solids are physically removed during primary treatment, wastewater enters the secondary treatment stage

What is the main objective of this biological process?

To remove dissolved organic matter

How does the regulation of nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus under the Clean Water Act primarily differ from the regulation of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)?

Nutrient limits are based on narrative or specific numeric goals for a particular water body, while BOD is regulated using specific limits

The Clean Water Act established the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) as its central regulatory tool

What is the primary function of this permit program?

To regulate point source pollution discharges into navigable waters 

Under the Clean Water Act, which of the pollutants is the MS4 program primarily designed to regulate?

Stormwater runoff from urbanized areas 

Quiz 5

True or False?

Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella typhi decreased after establishing the Safe Drinking Water Act

False

What year did these amendments require the regulation of 83 specified contaminants by June 1989, and for 25 more contaminants every three years therafter 

The 1986 amendments

True or False

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations are legally enforceable standards that apply to public water systems

These standards establish MCLs

False

What are some examples of parameters subjected to National Primary Drinking Water Regulations under the Safe Drinking Water Act 

Arsenic, benzene, fecal coliforms 

Corrosion and staining caused by Chloride, Copper, Corrosivity, Iron, Manganese, pH, Total Dissolved Solids, and Zinc are examples of?

Secondary standards

Disinfectants are used to eliminate microorganisms from water

However, they can react with organic matter to form these harmful chemicals

Trihalomethanes

True or False?

Nitrate occurs naturally in both surface and groundwater

Once in the body, it converts to nitrite, which can significantly affect the health of adults 

False 

True or False

Perfluoroalkyl substances have at least one carbon atom bonded to fluorine atoms, but not all of them

False 

What is the significance of the “unregulated contaminant candidate list”?

It prioritizes contaminants for future regulation based on their potential health risks