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what is the flow of genetic information in cellular life forms (human example)?
DNA genome, transcription, RNA, translation, protein
what is transcription?
converting DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA)
what is translation?
decodes mRNA into amino acids, forming proteins
an enzyme has an active site with certain shapes properties that allows it to bind to a _________
substrate
what is a substrate?
the reactant molecules
most all cells carry out _______ ____________
cellular respiration
what is cellular respiration?
the process of breaking down sugars in the presence of oxygen
what is the energy released during cellular respiration used for?
to support all the process of a cell
cellular respiration releases _____
energy
what is photosynthesis?
building up sugars using energy from light
what are cells?
the smallest units that show all characteristics of life
what are some characteristics of life?
complexity and organization
harnesses material and energy from the environment
responds to environment
can reproduce
uses DNA to store, transmit, and change information
what is a cell’s genome made up of?
DNA
a cells’ shape and proteins are encoded in it’s ______
genome
info in DNA is used to create _____
mRNA
what is mRNA used for?
to create polypeptide protein
what is polypeptide protein made up of?
mRNA
what are polypeptide proteins?
proteins used to carry out all functions in a call
what is a mutation?
changes in the DNA
what does a mutation impact?
structure of proteins
metabolic pathways
how a cell regulates processes
are viruses considered alive?
no
what do viruses need to reproduce?
a host cell
what do the spikes of SARS-CoV-2 do?
facilitates the infection process as they interact and bond with host cells
what is a bond?
an attraction/interaction between two atoms or ions
when a bond is formed, energy is ______
released
when a bond is broken, energy is _______
absorbed
when a bond forms, entropy _______
increases
when a bond forms it becomes _____ stable
more
t/f: covalent bonds are between molecules
false
t/f: covalent bonds are within molecules
true
what is electronegativity?
an atom’s ability to attract electrons
what is a nonpolar covalent bond?
a bond between two atoms that have similar electronegativity (ex. C-H)
what is a polar covalent bond?
a bond between a very strong electronegative atom and a very weak electronegative atom (ex. O-H)
what is an ionic (ion-ion) interaction?
a bond between two oppositely charged ions (ex. Na+Cl-)
what is a hydrogen bond?
a bond between a partially charged hydrogen and a more electronegative atom (ex. water)
what is hydrophobic clustering/hydrophobic effect?
nonpolar molecules avoiding contact with polar molecules (ex. C-H in water)
what are LDFS?
weak attractions between partial charges (ex. H gas)
what are hydrophilic molecules?
molecules with polar covalent bonds that can form hydrogen bonds to other polar molecules
what is an ion-dipole interaction?
when one atom with a permanent partial charge interacts with a fully charged atom
molecules with full opposite charges can interact with _____ bond forces
ionic
molecules with partially charged hydrogens can interact with ______ bonds with electronegative atoms in other molecules
hydrogen
are ionic and hydrogen bonds weak or strong in aqueous solutions?
weak
what kinds of molecules interact well with water? (hydrophilic)
molecules with full or partial charges
molecules with mostly polar covalent bonds are _______
hydrophilic
molecules with mostly nonpolar covalent bonds are ______
hydrophobic
what is a functional group?
a specific group of atoms attached to a larger molecule
functional groups determine how the molecule ________ with other molecules and make predictions about the behavior of the molecule
interactions
what is pH?
measurement of the concentration of protons in a solution
low proton concentration =
basic
high proton concentration =
acidic
the pH of water is ___
7
acids decrease pH by…
donating H+ to the solution
acids increase pH by…
accepting H+ into the solution
what functional group typically has a negative charge at the pH of the cell?
phosphate
____ functional groups can act as bases at the pH of the cell
amino
are most functional groups polar or nonpolar?
polar, some are charged
is a methyl group polar or nonpolar?
nonpolar
what is this functional group?
hydroxyl (OH)
what is this functional group?
carbonyl
what is this functional group?
carboxyl
what is this functional group?
amino
what is this functional group?
amino
what is this functional group?
amide
what is this functional group?
sulfhydryl
what is this functional group?
phosphate
what is this functional group?
methyl
what are (typical) cells made of?
70% water
macromolecules
ions and small molecules
what are the 4 macromolecules?
protein
carbohydrate
lipids
nucleic acids
what are macromolecules made up of?
many monomers bonded together
t/f: chemical rxns join monomers into macromolecules
true
macromolecules are formed by ______ bonds
covalent
what is released when a macromolecule is formed?
water
_________ are made out of monomers linked together by covalent bonds
polymeres
what is the difference between a polymer and a macromolecule?
a polymer consists of thousands of repeating monomers
a macromolecule is just a giant molecule that may or may not contain monomer units
what are functions of protein?
enzymes (polymer) carry out chemical rxns
molecule transporters
signaling molecules used to communicate information to other cells
receptors that sense and respond to signals
structure
what macromolecule does most of the work for the cell
protein
proteins are chains of _______ _______
amino acids
what is are the monomers for protein?
amino acids
what are the 4 groups of amino acids?
amino group
central (alpha) carbon
carboxyl group
R group
when multiple amino acids attach together what does it form?
a polypeptide polymer
amino acids are joined by _________ ______
peptide bonds
how does a peptide bond/polymer form for protein?
the carboxyl group of one amino acid will interact/react with the amino group of the other amino acid (+ removing water at the same time_
what is unique about the R group of an amino acid?
it varies between different monomers
in polypeptide polymers, what ends will there always be?
an amino group end (N terminus) and a carboxyl group end (C terminus)
what are carbohydrates?
sugar molecules
what is the same for all simple sugars?
they are all different combinations of carbon and water
are carbohydrates hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophilic
why are carbohydrates so hydrophilic?
they are full of hydroxyl groups (OH) which makes it easy to form H-bonds
what bonds are between carbohydrate polymers?
glycolytic bonds
difference in structure = difference in _________
function
what are some polymers of glucose?
cellulose
starch
glycogen
what is the function of cellulose?
structural component of cell walls in plants
t/f: most organisms can digest cellulose
false
what is the function of starch?
energy storage in plants
what is the function of glycogen
energy storage in animals
what is the function of nucleic acids?
store and transmit genetic information
where do the properties of protein come from?
the properties of the DNA and RNA that code them
what are the monomers for nucleic acids?
nucleotides
what is ribonucleotide?
the RNA monomer
what are nucleotides?
the monomers that make up DNA and RNA
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