AP World Unit 5

Contextualization for the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment began in France during the 18th century

• Continued framework of Scientific Revolution (reason > tradition) but rather for using that for understanding the natural world, was used to better understand society

Tenets of Enlightenment - Rationalism

• Reason is the most reliable path to truth > emotion + tradition + external authority

Tenets of Enlightenment - Empiricism

• True knowledge is gained from rigorous observation + experimentation + experience

Shifts in authority from the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment philosophers argued for shift in authority

• Individual (monarchs + divine right) -> inside individual (observation + human reason + natural rights)

• People had no representation in government in Europe maritime empires (who ruled via divine right) and Islamic land empires (who ruled via Sharia law)

• Enlightenment challenged religious authority in human affairs/government, contradicting the notion of divine right that monarchs used to legitimize and consolidate their power

Individualism

• The individual is the most crucial part to society

• Their rights needs to be protected

• Provided justification for challenging institutions

Ideas of John Locke

• Natural rights of life + liberty + property

  • No government can violate these rights

• Popular sovereignty

  • The government exists because the people want it to exist and if the government violates their population then it’s invalid and has to be reformed

Ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Social contract

  • Government protects the peoples rights

    • People have the right to overthrow a tyrannical government

Ideas of Baron de Montesquieu

• Separation of powers/checks and balances to avoid tyranny and oppression

Ideas of Voltaire

• Challenged Roman Catholic Church for being an institution of oppression

• Secularization

  • Separation of the Church and the state

Suffrage

• Equal voting rights for everyone under the law

• Happened gradually

Abolition of slavery

• William Wilberforce (1759-1797) called for the end of slavery on moral + religious grounds

• After Haitian Revolution (slave revolt that resulted in first black republic) + Jamaican slave revolts made Euro states question their dependency on slave trade

• Euro started abolishing slave trade but still practiced slavery

  • Europe eventually abolished the practice of slavery

Women’s suffrage

• Was not granted post revolution

• Olympe de Gouges

  • Criticized the French Constitution of 1789 (during the French Revolution) for not including women's rights

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton

  • Led Seneca Falls Convention which demanded lawmakers to grant women the same rights as men

  • Influenced by enlightenment philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft

    • Equality for women begins with equal education

End of serfdom

• Enlightenment ideas contributed to the end of serfdom as European economies shift from agricultural to industrial and feudalism becomes outdated

• Decreasing demand for peasant labor + increasing peasant revolts = abolition of serfdom

Revolutions influenced by Enlightenment ideals

• American Revolution (1776)

• French Revolution (1789)

• Haitian Revolution (1804)

• Latin America (19th century)

General themes that influenced Atlantic Revolutions - Nationalism

• People who share a common culture + language + history + ethnicity + borders should rule themselves

• Seen as cause for political revolutions

• Challenged multiethnic empires

• Rulers could impose nationalist sentiments from the state (top down)

• Nationalist sentiments could also grow among the people (bottom up)

General themes that influenced Atlantic Revolutions - Monarchic + imperial rule

• Euro monarchs ruled through divine right without popular sovereignty

• Overspending + oppressive taxes + lack of due process + lack of representation + rigid class structures

General themes that influenced Atlantic Revolutions - New ideologies from the Enlightenment

• Popular sovereignty + natural rights suggested power to govern lies within the people, contradicting divine right

• Democracy - citizens have the right to vote and influence laws to exercise their power

• Liberalism - protection of civil rights + necessity of a representative government + protection of private property + economic freedom

Causes of the American Revolution

• Colonists developed their own culture and operated independently from Britain since Jamestown in 1607

• Seven Years War/French and Indian War

  • Britain in debt so they put taxes (Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Quarterting Act etc.) on the colonists without their consent, violating their natural rights

• Colonists then issued Declaration of Independence (1776)

Effects of the American Revolution

• American Revolution set global precedent

  • Showed that it’s possible to overthrow a tyrannical + oppresive monarchy

  • Established a democratic republic where citizens elect leaders to make laws + represent them

  • U.S. Constituion

    • Based on Enlightenment principles - freedom of press + freedom of speech + right to private property + freedom of religion

    • Did not grant universal suffrage immediately

  • Bill of Rights

    • Provided an opportunity for change by making amendments to the Constitution

Social causes of the French Revolution

• Three Estates under “ancient regime” / old order

  • 1st Estate - clergy + monarchs, smallest estate, did not have to pay taxes

  • 2nd Estate - nobles, also a small estate, did not have to pay taxes

  • 3rd Estate - everyone else (peasants + laborers + artisans + shopkeepers + physicians + bankers + lawyers), largest estate of over 20 million people, had to pay all of the taxes, had to serve in the military

Economic causes of the French Revolution

• Seven Year War put France in debt so taxes got increased on the 3rd Estate

Political causes of the French Revolution

• Estates General - meeting between the three estates to discuss issues

  • Each estate got one vote, 1st and 2nd estates generally vote together so 3rd estate never wins

  • No popular soverignty

French Revolution - 1789

• 3rd Estate forms the National Assembly + writes Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (natural rights must be protected under popular sovereignty)

• Raided Bastille prison (where weapons were kept) and abolished the 1st estate, taking their property and developing a new legislature for law making and tax collecting

French Revolution - 1791

• France becomes a constitutional monarchy, with nobles subject to the same laws as everyone else

• Nobles asked Austria and Prussia for help to stop the French Revolutionaries

  • National Assembly declared war on Prussia + Austria + Spain + Britain + Netherlands

French Revolution - 1792

• National Convention (same thing as National Assembly but different name) consolidates power by executing King Louis XVI and his wife + closes churches + forced priests to take wives + reorganized calendar so there were no religious days (called this era Year I)

• Extended some rights to women (letting them inherit property + divorce their husbands) but still no voting rights

• “Reign of Terror”

  • Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) and his allies eventually sent to guillotine

  • Executing those that didn’t support the revolution with the guillotine

French Revolution - 1795

• The Directory

  • Conservative era/response that didn’t fix any of the economic or military problems

French Revolution - 1804

• Napolean Bonaparte returns from fighting Austria and Britain and stages a coup to establish himself as emperor

• Implemented Civil Code

  • Suffrage to all men + merit based education and employment + protected private property + restored patriarchal authority

External events of the French Revolution

• European monarchs fought against France + Napoleon’s army to keep their power

Characteristics of the Haitian Revolution

• Split between Spain (east) and French (West)

• Profitable colonial region

• French sent freed slaves + mixed people (gens de couleur) to fight in American Revolution

  • Exposed to Enlightenment ideals

• Haitian rebels beat French (who got hit with yellow fever) and became the first black republic and the second independent country in Western Hemisphere

Prominent people in the Haitian Revolution

• Boukman

  • Organized uprising of enslaved people

• Toussaint Louverture

  • Formally enslaved

  • Issued constitution granting equality + citizenship for all of Saint-Domigue but didn’t declare independence due to Napoleon

The role of the Casta system + characteristics of Latin American Revolutions

• Peninsulares of Casta system had the highest jobs

  • Creoles resented that because they had the same “purity of blood” + became familiar with Enlightenment + revolutions, they led most of these Latin American revolutions

• Napoleon invaded Spain + Portugal = weakened their control over their American colonies

• “Letter from Jamaica” by Simón BolÍvar used Enlightenment ideas to unite people + call for independence under liberty, equality, and republican style government

Post Napoleonic Europe - Contextualization

• Napoleon defeated in 1814

  • European monarchs met at Congress of Vienna (1815) to restore pre-revolution order by suppressing nationalist ideas

Post Napoleonic Europe - Austria

• Klemens von Metternich

  • Prince of Austria

  • Suppressed nationalist ideas in German states from “top down”

  • Censored press + crushing protests but nationalism continued to develop

Post Napoleonic Europe - Prussia

• One of the 38 independent states in German Federation that was dominated by Austria

• Otto von Bismarck

  • Used military force to promote nationalism in Prussia from top down

    • Provoked wars with Denmark + Austria + France

  • Declared unification of Germany and established Second Reich/German Empire

Post Napoleonic Europe - Italy

• Unified the politically fragmented peninsula via diplomacy and warfare to expel foreign powers

• Camillo di Cavour in north + Giuseppe Garibaldi in south

Nationalism in New Zealand under British

• Ethnic group Māori

  • Tried to resist Britain control + unity themselves

  • Bottom up nationalism

  • Britain maintained control but nationalism only increased

Nationalism in Philippines under Spain

• Filipinos studied in Europe

  • Exposed to Enlightenment + revolutions

  • Came back and demanded those reforms, the Propaganda Movement

• Jose Rizal

  • Leader in movement

  • Wrote about the lack of representation in government + equal treatment under the law + secularization

  • Executed in 1896 but it contributed to the later Philippine Revolution

Nationalism in Puerto Rico under Spain

• Lola Rodriguez de Tio wrote poetry that contributed to the anti-colonial + pre-revolutionary thought throughout Caribbean

Nationalism in Balkan region under Ottoman Empire

• Ruled over the Balkan region that had many ethnic groups

• Enlightenment + revolution ideas spread here and influenced separation movements

• Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876)

  • Attempt from Ottoman Empire to unify the region under nationalism + equal citizenship + centralized administration (failed)

Define the Industrial Revolution

• Shift from agricultural economy and handcrafted goods -> urban economy (mass production of goods in factories) for markets

Industrial Revolution’s effects on global balance of power

• Shifted to industrialized states

  • First Britain then spread across Europe + U.S. + Japan + Russia

  • Industrialization = increased military power = colonizing

Environmental factors of the Industrial Revolution beginning in Britain

• Had coal + iron close to the surface and navigable rivers + canals

• Established maritime empire = increased access to resources and capital/money through their colonies

Demographic factors of the Industrial Revolution beginning in Britain

• Population grew from agricultural innovations (crop rotation + seed drill) from Agricultural Revolution

• Had more food and decreased demand for rural labor = people moving from farms to cities (urbanization) = more factory workers

Political + economic factors of the Industrial Revolution beginning in Britain

• Law protected private property + enforced patent/ownership laws

  • Fostered entrepreneurship and private investment

• Effects maritime expansion + transatlantic trade

  • More wealth/capital = more investment in businesses + technology because of more capital = less risk

  • State sponsored/mercantilist systems -> economic liberalism/private investment + capitalist markets

Before factories - Putting Out/Cottage system

• Entrepreneurs paid people to manufacture goods within their home

• Demand for goods increased so new technologies developed to meet demands

  • Some new technologies were big so factories were built to house them

  • More factories = increased demand for industrial labor -> accelerated process of urbanization

Steam engine

• Factories relied on water power prior to steam engines so they had to be built near rivers

  • Steam engines allowed factories to be built in more locations

• Coal fueled early steam engines

  • Pumped water out of coal mines and allowed miners to extract more coal

Effects of industrialization + urbanization

• Unskilled laborers doing repetitive work via the assembly line started replacing skilled artisans from cottage system

• Population growth

  • Migration into cities

  • Improvements in nutrition + sanitation + medical innovations (vaccinations and anesthesia) reducing mortality rates

• Living standards improved

• New social classes developed

“Bottom up” vs “top down”

• “Bottom up” = from citizens/private investors

• “Top down” = from the government

Industrial Revolution spreads to France

• Didn’t industrialize much until 1815 because of Napoleonic Wars

• “Bottom up” industrialization

• Quentin Canal - connected North France and English Channel

  • Allowed goods + raw materials + coal + manufactured products to be transported effectively

Industrial Revolution spreads to U.S.

• Industrialized rapidly after Civil War (1861-1865)

• Had natural resources + private property protections + growing population

• “Bottom up” industrialization

Industrial Revolution spreads to Russia

• Got beat in Crimean War (1853-1856) so Tsar Alexander emancipated serfs in 1861

• Trans Siberian Railroad

  • Connected Euro side of Russia with Pacific port

  • Transportation of raw materials + imports of Western machinery for Russian industrialization

  • Movement of peasants and laborers into Siberia for agriculture and mining

• “Top down” industrialization

Industrial Revolution spreads to Japan

• U.S. forces Japan to open up their ports to Western trade -> Meiji Restoration/Japan’s Industrial Revolution (1869)

  • Abolished samurai class + centralized government authority + brought in Westerners to show them how to industrialize and train military

  • Built railroads + telegraph lines + factories + mining centers + shipyards

• “Top down” industrialization

Causes of reform movements in Egypt

• Ottoman Empire = “Sick man of Europe”

  • Fell behind in terms of development and weak central authority leading to territorial losses and nationalist movements (multi ethnic region)

• Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876)

  • Attempt to Westernize law + education + infrastructure

  • Young Turks (1889) push for secular and constitutional reforms

    • Too late

Ottoman and Europe relations

• Ottoman Empire became dependant on European loans

  • Euros had leverage and Euro merchants + diplomats were allowed to operate their own laws + run tax exempt business + avoid Ottoman courts and taxes

    • Basically profiting inside Ottoman Empire and Ottoman Empire gets nothing from it

Egypt separatist movement

• Led by Muhammad Ali

• Modernized Egyptian army + hired Europeans to train them + developed industries for cotton textile and weapon manufacturing

• Became autonomous

Opium Wars

• Britain used opium (addictive drug) to create a favourable balance of trade with China -> Opium Wars (1839-1842)

• China forced to sign Treaty of Nanjing

  • Opened up ports for Western trade + gave Hong Kong to Britain as a colony + Euros subject to their own laws rather than Chinese laws (extraterritoriality)

Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

• Civil war in China

• Taiping forces tried to overthrow Qing Dynasty and establish China as a Christian kingdom

Self Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)

• China Westernizing military technology + building factories and shipyards + reforming education

• Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)

  • Conservative response that aimed to expel Western influence in China

  • Stopped by Western powers

  • Fall of dynasties and establishment of Republic of China in 1912

Decline of local industries in India + Egypt + Southeast Asia - Textiles

• India + Egypt overridden by Britain producing textiles cheaper and faster

Decline of local industries in India + Egypt + Southeast Asia - Iron

• British from British East India Company imported iron from India for their own manufacturing rather than manufacturing in India

  • Developmental stym in India

Decline of local industries in India + Egypt + Southeast Asia - Ship building

• British influence expanded (colonies) so they redirected local resources and redirected shipbuilding to support British Royal Navy

  • Restricted locally controlled shipyards

Deindustrialization

• Former manufacturing centers repurposed towards supplying raw materials rather than finished goods

Coal powered steam engine from First Industrial Revolution (1750-1830)

• Developed by Thomas Newcomen and improved by James Watt

• Pumped water from coal mines

• Was able to be powered outside of rivers

• Powered textile machines + Railway systems + steamships that promoted domestic and international travel of goods and people

Second Industrial Revolution

• Shift from coal -> oil/gasoline

• Benjamin Silliman discovers how to process oil into gasoline (1855) and powered the internal combustion engine (much more compact than steam engine)

• Automobiles like Henry Ford’s Model T were produced using the assembly line

Steel

• Henry Bessemer discovers steel (1856)

• Stronger + more versatile + cheaper than iron

• Used to construct railroads + bridges + skyscrapers + steamships + factory tools/machinery

  • Increased transportation on land and water to meet consumer demand

Vulcanization

• Makes rubber more durable

Synthetic dyes

• Cheaper to make and buy

• Replaced organic dyes

Electricity - Lightbulb

• Thomas Edison invents lightbulb

• Lit up factories + homes past daylight = extended working hours = more production

Electricity - Transportation

• New transportation (subways + electric streetcars) = urban growth

Electricity - Telegraph

• Samuel Morse invents telegraph = instant long distance communication

Electricity - Transatlantic telegraph cable

• 1870s

• Linked Euro and the U.S. and connected their economies

• Contributes to the rise of the stock market

Impact of industrial technologies on economy

• Factory system replaced agricultural economy

• Became core of industrial production

Impact of industrial technologies on urbanization

• Railroads link interior regions with exterior regions + encourage urbanization there

• Connects rural and urban areas

  • People move from rural areas to urban areas for jobs as machines replaced the demand for human labor

Impact of industrial technologies on migration

• Facilitated by advanced transportation (railroads + subways + automobiles + electric streetcars)

Impact of industrial technologies on imperialism

• Advanced transportation + weapons + communication technology enabled more direct control over colonized regions

• Local producers in colonial regions displaced by European industrial production

  • Colonizes organized colonial economy to serve industrial needs in Europe

Explain why states adopted “top-down” industrialization policies during the 19th century

• Industrialized states got a lot of wealth and military strength so non industrialized states started sponsoring their own industrialization

  • It was either industrialize or get taken advantage of

Egypt’s state sponsored industrialization

• Failed to industrialize

• Top down reforms by Muhammand Ali

  • Established state run textile + weapon factories

  • Required peasants to grow cotton + wheat to by purchased by the state and then be exported

  • Put tariffs on imported goods to prevent competition

Britain’s role in Egypt’s industrialization

• Forced Egypt to remove tariffs

• Cheaper British imports dominate Egypt’s developing market

• Became reliant on British investments

Japan’s state sponsored industrialization

• Successful industrialization

• U.S. Matthew Perry forces Japan to open up ports to foreign trade with their superior military

• Tokugawa Shogunate had Japan isolated from global trade so got blamed for not protecting Japan from Western involvement

  • Got overthrown and power got restored to the emperor (Meiji Restoration)

Meiji Restoration

• Abolished samurai class

• Officials sent to study Western industry + governance + culture

• Experts hired to train workers + build infrastructure (railroads + telegraph systems + national banking network + weapon factories + silk textile mills)

• Constitutional monarchy established with Meiji Constitution

  • Parliament called Diet with two houses

  • Real power remained with emperor (controlled military and major state decisions) and elite advisors aka genro (centralized gov + modernized Japan + industrialized Japan)

  • Military dominated government

Mercantilism vs capitalism and the transition

• Mercantilism (top down) transitions into capitalism (bottom up)

• Controlling trade + regulating colonies + increasing exports while limiting exports vs private entrepreneurship + investment + competition

Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations

• Adam Smith writes The Wealth of Nations (1776)

  • Criticized mercantilism for benefiting the elite not the majority

  • Invisible hand regulates market through supply and demand (competition) with no government intervention for prices and production

Early capitalism critics - Jeremy Bentham

• Government intervention to address economic inequalities (poverty + poor working conditions)

Early capitalism critics - Friedrich List

• Rejected free trade and passed it off as a British conspiracy for their own good

• Argued for protectionism/tariffs to protect domestic industries

• Contributed to Zollverein

  • Customs union that united German states and fosters local industrial growth in Germany

Rise of transnational corporations

• These firms relied on private investment for expansion, especially stock markets

• Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation

• Unilever

Hong Kong and Shanghai banking Corporation

• 1865

• Facilitated British trade throughout East Asia

• Hong Kong was ceded to Britain from Treaty of Nanjing in 1842

Unilever

• British and Dutch corporation

• Operated factories around the world

• Sourced raw materials from colonies in West Africa and Belgian Congo

Rise of stock market

• New York Stock Exchange

  • Enabled companies to raise capital by selling shares of a company to investors

  • Limited liability also encouraged investment (shareholders only could lose what they invested)

Societal impacts of industrial capitalism

• Standard of living increased compared to prior feudal system

  • Mass production of goods available and for cheaper for growing middle class

• More food

• Improvements in diets + housing + medicine + sanitation = life expectancy increasing

Explain how industrialization shaped social hierarchies

• Upward and downward mobility was easier compared to feudal system

Urban Poor

• People who couldn’t work anymore due to injury or illness

Working class

• Largest class

• Unskilled laborers + displaced artisans

• Low wages + harsh working conditions + job insecurity

• Generally lived in overcrowded homes with no ventilation + plumbing + or sanitation and contributed to the spread of disease

• Women in factories and mines

Middle class

• Factory managers + business owners + professionals + office workers

Upper middle class

• “Captains of industry”

• Factory owners + entrepreneurs + investors

Traditional aristocracy

• Small percentage of people

• Have generational wealth

• Top of the social hierarchy

Public works projects

• “Top down” developments in community

• Addressed pollution + disease + crime

• Police forces + sewers + improvements in infrastructure/housing

Social workforce programs

• “Top down” (with aid from “bottom up”) developments for the individual

• Addressed sickness unemployment + poverty

• Health insurance + workers compensation + education laws

Arguments for government intervention in economic + social affairs

• Either increase taxes for projects or have the people compete for business (private sector)

Factory Act of 1833

• Made reforms for child labor

• Limited the amount of hours and the age children could work

• Made factory inceptions and school for child workers mandatory

Labor unions

• Formed by workers to pressure employers + government to enact reforms + laws for them

• Collective action

  • Strikes + protests + collective bargaining

• Employers incentivized to meet worker demands to resume production

• Government officials incentivized to meet demands to be elected