PHILOSOPHY FLASH ESSAY PLANS - 20 AND 30 MARKERS

Cosmological arguments provide a convincing argument for the existence of God. Evaluate this statement.

MOSTLY DISAGREE (KALAM SOMEWHAT CONVINCING)

1) Aquinas' 2nd way - Cause and Effect

"there is no case known in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself"

C: Hume: just because there is C+E IN the universe, doesn't mean it applies TO the universe

2) Aquinas' 3rd way - Necessity and Contingency

"that which does not exist only begins to exist by something already existing"

C: Hume: not enough evidence to say the universe had a cause let alone it being God, may be self causing

3) Craig's Kalam argument (Al-Ghazali)

"we are brought not merely to the first cause of the universe, but to its creator"

C: Hume: Which God? even if cause is God, does not say which H: personal, e.g. Christian God + Jesus

Explain the cosmological arguments presented by St Thomas Aquinas and William Lane Craig.

1) Aquinas' 2nd way - Cause and Effect

"there is no case known in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself"

- domino effect which we can trace backwards, no reason to believe things are self-causing, must be a first cause or no other causes, must be a self causing first cause = God

2) Aquinas' 3rd way - Necessity and Contingency

"that which does not exist only begins to exist by something already existing"

- possibility to exist/not, everything that exists comes from something already existing, first cause must be necessary to bring possibility into actuality, must be God

3) Craig's Kalam argument (Al-Ghazali)

"we are brought not merely to the first cause of the universe, but to its creator"

- everything that begins to exist has a cause of existence, the universe began to exist as actual infinities are impossible, science can't prove a causal start to the universe, must be personal = God

Examine different versions of the teleological argument for the existence of God as presented by Paley and Tennant.

1) Paley - Watchmaker analogy

"every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature"

2) Tennant - Anthropic Principle

"The multitude of interwoven adaptations by which the world is constituted...as purposive intelligence"

3) Tennant - Aesthetic Argument

"the aesthetic argument for theism becomes more persuasive when it renounces all claims to proof and appeals to a logical probability"

Examine the teleological arguments for the existence of God as presented by Aquinas and Paley

1) Paley - Watchmaker analogy

"every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature"

2) Aquinas' design qua regularity

"whatever lacks knowledge cannot move towards an end, unless it be directed by some intelligence"

- concept of governance, analogy of the archer and arrow

'The teleological arguments for God's existence are not effective.' Evaluate this view.

AGREE

1) Paley - Watchmaker analogy

"every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature"

C: Hume Housebuilder (a house has an architect and a builder, just because we know this it infers nothing we know about the universe - house/universe different)

2) Aquinas' design qua regularity

"whatever lacks knowledge cannot move towards an end, unless it be directed by some intelligence"

- concept of governance, analogy of the archer and arrow

C: Hume: distinction between authentic/apparent design, just because something appears intelligently designed doesn't mean it was designed (e.g. food chains)

3) Tennant - Aesthetic Argument

"the aesthetic argument for theism becomes more persuasive when it renounces all claims to proof and appeals to a logical probability"

C: evolution/Darwin (survival of the fittest, favourable genes have been passed down through generations)

Examine the problem of evil and suffering with reference to J. L. Mackie and William Rowe

1) J. L. Mackie - Inconsistent Triad

"God's omnipotence must in any case be restricted in one way or another."

2) William Rowe - Evidential Problem

"there exists such instances of intense evil and suffering that an omniscient being could prevent"

3) Gregory Paul - Holocaust of the Children

"It is very probably not possible to reconcile the current state of the universe with the Christian concept of God"

The modern problem of evil arguments are effective in proving God's nonexistence. Evaluate this statement.

AGREE

1) J. L. Mackie - Inconsistent Triad

"God’s omnipotence must in any case be restricted in one way or another."

C: might just be our perception that makes us think things are evil

2) William Rowe - Evidential Problem

"there exists such instances of intense evil and suffering that an omniscient being could prevent"

C: some evil can be prevented from letting this evil happen, it is impossible to say that the fawn in the fire is the greatest evil that could have come from that situation

3) Gregory Paul - Holocaust of the Children

"It is very probably not possible to reconcile the current state of the universe with the Christian concept of God"

C: these statistics include infants who died as a result of intentional abortion

Examine different versions of the ontological argument for the existence of God as presented by Anselm and Malcolm

1) Anselm's Proslogian 2

“a being [God] that which is greater is inconceivable”

- God is the greatest thing we can conceive of

2) Anselm's Proslogian 3

“…it is possible to conceive of a being which cannot be conceived not to exist; and this is greater than one which can be conceived not to exist.”

- greater to be a necessary being than a contingent being

3) Malcolm

“God’s self-existence is either impossible or necessary”

- God cannot come in or out of existence. Therefore, if he exists, he does so necessarily/ idea of contradictory nature

'The ontological arguments for God's existence fail.' Evaluate this view.

AGREE

1) Anselm's Proslogian 2

“a being [God] that which is greater is inconceivable”

C: Guanilo 'perfect island'

2) Descartes

“it is not within my power to think of God without existence”

C: Kant 'existence is not a predicate, does not add anything to the concept of God'

3) Malcolm

“God’s self-existence is either impossible or necessary”

C: Paul 'Holocaust of the Children' contradictory nature

Logical Positivism should be accepted as providing a valid criterion for meaning in the use of language. Evaluate this statement.

DISAGREE

1) Logical Positivists

“Statements are made by empirical science; their meaning can be determined by logical analysis”

- empirical = meaningful, tautologies/analytic/synthetic/maths

C: Hare - bliks (the way that a person views the world gives meaning to them even if others do not share the same view)

2) Ayer - Verification principle

"the criteria we use to test the genuineness of apparent statements is the criterion of verifiability"

- weak/strong verification

C: VP can't be verified so is meaningless in itself, can't verify historical events but they are meaningful in society

3) Flew - Falsification Principle

"what would have to occur or to have occurred to constitute for you a disproof of the love of, or the existence of God?"

- gardener analogy, meaningless

C: Swinburne: toys in the cupboard (concept meaningful even though falsifying the statement is not possible, importance of understanding)

Explain the criticisms of the Falsification Principle.

1) Hare - bliks

"holding the right blik is what matters"

2) Swinburne

- toys in the cupboard (concept meaningful even though falsifying the statement is not possible)

3) Mitchell

- partisan and the stranger (certain things can be meaningful even when they cannot be falsified)

Explain the Augustinian type theodicy.

1) Evil as a consequence of sin / Evil as a privation of good

"for what is it we call evil but the absence of good?"

- humans willing to stray from God to be evil due to free will, and evil being the absence of good

2) Cross overcomes evil and soul deciding

"were he not so omnipotent and good that he van bring good even out of evil?"

- God only sent Jesus following the events of Eden, showing that he is Just. Those who freely choose Jesus can be saved and go to Heaven.

3) The fall of humans and creation

"vices in the soul are nothing but privations of natural good"

- all humans descend from Adam so inherit his guilt and sin, therefore we should be punished accordingly. moral evil is from human's sin, natural evil is from a lack of good in the world

Explain challenges to the Augustinian type theodicy

1) Moral Contradiction

"for what is it we call evil but the absence of good?"

- in a perfect world, perfect beings have no reason to sin. God must have created evil knowing we would sin. additionally, if the world was perfect, there would be no knowledge of evil, so God must have created evil.

2) Eden and Christians

"were he not so omnipotent and good that he van bring good even out of evil?"

- no scientific geological evidence of a perfect place known as 'Eden'. Additionally, to say that those who choose Jesus will go to Heaven doesn't account for the Christians who commit sins.

3) Scientific inaccuracy

"vices in the soul are nothing but privations of natural good"

- inbreeding creates issues, and these are not present in humankind. therefore, we cannot descend from Adam and Eve

Augustine's theodicy succeeds as a defence of the God of Classical Theism. Evaluate this statement.

DISAGREE

1) Evil as a consequence of sin / Evil as a privation of good

"for what is it we call evil but the absence of good?"

C: in a perfect world, perfect beings have no reason to sin. God must have created evil knowing we would sin. additionally, if the world was perfect, there would be no knowledge of evil, so God must have created evil.

2) Cross overcomes evil and soul deciding

"were he not so omnipotent and good that he van bring good even out of evil?"

C: no scientific geological evidence of a perfect place known as 'Eden'. Additionally, to say that those who choose Jesus will go to Heaven doesn't account for the Christians who commit sins

3) The fall of humans and creation

"vices in the soul are nothing but privations of natural good"

C: inbreeding creates issues, and these are not present in humankind. therefore, we cannot descend from Adam and Eve

Irenaeus's theodicy succeeds as a defence of the God of Classical Theism. Evaluate this statement.

DISAGREE

1) Soul making

"the harder we strive, so much it is the more valuable"

- free will, soul gets purer with age, grow more into God's image

C: Genesis: 'God said 'let us make humankind in our image, according in our likeness'. If humans made in God's image, why impure?

2) Why evil/suffering exists

"God made man a free agent from the beginning"

- moral: humans made imperfectly, natural: consequence of imperfect world, gives humans capacity to develop

C: Idolatry (trying to become more like God) is against the 10 commandments. Would a loving God bring us into an imperfect world?

3) God the craftsman

"he shall overcome the substance of created nature"

- God moulds humans into perfection through trails/ tribulation in life, universal salvation as temporary evil (God gives second chances to those who commit evil)

C: universal salvation is actually unjust. why should those who commit abominable crimes be saved? and if we are all going to be saved, there is no point in being good.

Compare Freud and Jung's arguments on the purpose of religion.

1) Similarity = Religion gives short term relief to mental illness

J: "among all my patients, there is not one who's problems have not been solved by that of a religious outlook on life" - balance mind to find your true self

F: "we recognise the need for religion in the parental complex" - alleviate guilt inherited and from oedipus complex

2) Difference = purpose

J: "religious images are that by which you can discover who you are and what you can become" Palmer - expression of the collective unconscious, unable to decipher images so attribute this to religion

F: "we regard religion as an obsessive collective neurosis" - repetitive behaviours such as repeating the rosary mimics OCD

3) Difference = how far religion helps

J: "religion is a positive error" - helps with individuation, balancing archetypes and overcoming mental illness

F: "religion is an illusion based on wishful thinking, not just thinking" - gain attachment and emotional dependency on religion which is good short term, but worse long term

Religious belief can only be considered a neurosis and nothing more. Evaluate this statement.

DISAGREE

1) Religion gives short term relief to mental illness

J: "among all my patients, there is not one who's problems have not been solved by that of a religious outlook on life" - balance mind to find your true self

F: "we recognise the need for religion in the parental complex" - alleviate guilt inherited and from oedipus complex (C: guilt cannot be inherited)

2) Religion holds purpose

J: "religious images are that by which you can discover who you are and what you can become" Palmer - expression of the collective unconscious, unable to decipher images so attribute this to religion

F: "we regard religion as an obsessive collective neurosis" - repetitive behaviours such as repeating the rosary mimics OCD

3) Religion helps, even if just short term

J: "religion is a positive error" - helps with individuation, balancing archetypes and overcoming mental illness

F: "religion is an illusion based on wishful thinking, not just thinking" - gain attachment and emotional dependency on religion which is good short term, but worse long term

Examine religious experience with reference to prayer and mysticism.

1) Prayer

"Prayer and comfortable living are incompatible."

- interior castle analogy, working towards unity with God

2) Mysticism

"Mystical states cannot be sustained for long"

- transcendent/ecstatic/unitive

3) Conversions

"And when I received the book...I realised that this was the true religion"

- collective/individual, sudden/gradual,

Explain religious language as analogy, with reference to Aquinas and Ramsey.

1) A - univocal/equivocal/analogous language

“nothing can be predicated univocally of God and other things” Aquinas

- univocal (universal) NOT as god is beyond our understanding

- equivocal (one meaning) NOT as we don't know what God is so can't apply it to God

- analogy (comparison) YES as analogous to human qualities

2) A - attribution/proportion

“there is a certain mode of likeness of things to God” Aquinas

- attribution: we humans have qualities like power, love and knowledge, so we can conclude (and therefore meaningfully say) that our creator also has qualities of power, love and knowledge that are analogous to our own

- proportion: virus has life, plants have life, humans have life, God has life. This illustrates that different being have a quality like life to different degrees of proportion depending on their being. God is the greatest being and thus has qualities to a greater degree of proportion than humans

3) R - Disclosure

“let us always be cautious of talking about God in straightforward language” Ramsey

- model: familiar qualities seen in the world are compared with God (good is a model) but alone these are insufficient.

- then adapted qualifiers: God is infinitely good; aids understanding and makes something known that was previously hidden which makes a disclosure about God

Examine the four characteristics of mystical experience as presented by William James

1) transiency

"mystical states cannot be sustained for long...their quality can but imperfectly be reproduced in memory"

- mystical experiences that are short-lived, but their impact may not be

2) noetic quality

"they are illuminations, revelations, full of significance and importance"

- the experience imparts some form of authoritative spiritual knowledge or insight, a sense of revelation

3) ineffability

"the subject of it immediately says that it defies expression"

- it cannot be put into ordinary and words and expressed adequately for the benefit of others

4) passivity

"the mystic feels as if his own will were in abeyance, and indeed sometimes as if he were grasped and held by a superior power"

- the mystic is not in control of the experience, but an external influence or force is

Examine the concept of the numinous as presented by Rudolf Otto.

1) numinous

"the feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide, pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship"

- relating to the power or presence of a deity, from the Latin word 'numen' meaning divine power, gentle or sudden and powerful, we can be the recipient of the numinous due to our natural human inclination to the supernatural realm

2) mysterium-tremendum

"the mysterium is the wholly-other, an object eluding all understanding. it fills the mind with 'wonder and astonishment."

- a Latin expression representing a mystery that frightens people away because it evokes the emotion of religious awe, we stand in awe at the power of the divine

3) fascinans

"the fascinans, the attracting and alluring moment of the numinous"

- at the same time as being unique and terrifying, the numinous also brings fascination, enquiry and invites exploration and a sense of wonder. It is the ‘attracting and alluring element’

Mystical experiences are not adequately defined by Otto's numinous. Evaluate this view

1) numinous

"the feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide, pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship" Otto

- less caught up in language, but more about actual experience

C: James uses 4 definitions, means that experience will be more meaningful if it meets these criteria

2) mysterium-tremendum

"the mysterium is the wholly-other, an object eluding all understanding. it fills the mind with 'wonder and astonishment." Otto

- allows for experience outside the Abrahamic God (e.g ghosts and demons)

C: can also be used to depict what some would consider non-religious experiences e.g. delusions

3) fascinans

"the fascinans, the attracting and alluring moment of the numinous" Otto

- covers more types of experiences, does not overly focus on what is rational and recognises the range of emotions that stem from religious experience

C: far too vague, only by stating what is alluring it is not actually defining what a religious experience is

Examine the main criticisms of religion made by New Atheism.

1) non-thinking

"faith is the great cop-out, the great excuse to evade the need to think and evaluate evidence" Dawkins

- Dawkins argued that belief is forced upon children unquestionably, thus people believe the faith of their birth is correct. this non-thinking can lead to extremism, leaving religion as dangerous

2) infantile world view

"the Universe is so much bigger than our prophets said" Sagan

- the religious view is deficient and improvised, while science offers a bold and beautiful vision of the Universe as grand- for example, deep space, microbiology and natural selection show the world's beauty, and religion represents as impoverishment of what the real world has to offer- additionally, God represents outdated views (homophobia, infanticide, child abuse/murder)

3) impedes scientific process

"I am against religion because it teaches us to be satisfied with not understanding the world" Dawkins

- religion impedes scientific progress because it teaches an absolute ideology that we should not change our minds - if a scientific text is wrong it is amended, however religious texts are not

Examine religious responses to the challenge of New Atheism.

1) science and religion are compatible

"neither science nor religion can entertain the hope of establishing logically coercive proof of the kind that only a fool could deny" Polkinghorne

- new atheism rejects the idea of multiple explanations of the same thing- John Polkinghorne however sees no competition, and argues that two different accounts can weave together to form a rich and complete narrative

2) increase in fundamental religious activity relating to morality + community

"the Universe is so much bigger than our prophets said" Sagan

- the Christian Institute protest and campaign on social and moral issues to get legal action- additionally, many Islam fundamentalists seek social and political action- therefore, religion can help improve the community

3) increase in religious apologists in the media

"faith is the great cop-out, the great excuse to evade the need to think and evaluate evidence" Dawkins

- Christianity has grown in the spotlight, and this has given it a platform to reaffirm and represent the reasonableness of its faith. in this space apologists appeal to the natural sciences in support of faith

Religious responses to New Atheism have been successful. Evaluate this view.

1) science and religion are compatible

"neither science nor religion can entertain the hope of establishing logically coercive proof of the kind that only a fool could deny" Polkinghorne

C: religion impedes scientific progress because it teaches an absolute ideology that we should not change our minds - if a scientific text is wrong it is amended, however religious texts are not

2) increase in fundamental religious activity relating to morality + community

"the Universe is so much bigger than our prophets said" Sagan

C: non-thinking, Dawkins argued that belief is forced upon children unquestionably, thus people believe the faith of their birth is correct. this non-thinking can lead to extremism, leaving religion as dangerous

3) increase in religious apologists in the media

"faith is the great cop-out, the great excuse to evade the need to think and evaluate evidence" Dawkins

C: infantile world view, God represents outdated views (homophobia, infanticide, child abuse/murder)

Analogy is persuasive in asserting the meaningfulness of religious language. Evaluate this view.

1) A - univocal/equivocal/analogous language

“nothing can be predicated univocally of God and other things” Aquinas

C: analogy rests on the assumption that God exists and created us in his image which is not verifiable or falsifiable

2) A - attribution/proportion

“there is a certain mode of likeness of things to God” Aquinas

C: we have no way of knowing that the analogy being used is a suitable one

3) R - Disclosure

“let us always be cautious of talking about God in straightforward language” Ramsey

C: God is too different from humanity to be able to make any comparison so we cannot know if the comparisons are reasonable or correct

Examine challenges to the objectivity and authenticity of religious experience.

1) description-related challenge

“These principles of credulity and testimony are ultimate principles of rationality" Franks Davis

- these challenges involve misremembering, exaggerating, misusing terms or telling lies, unable to provide linguistic precision about the religious experience

2) object-related challenge

"Religious experiences are not the sort of thing which can easily be produced for observation in a controlled setting." Franks Davis

- these challenges centre on the implausibility of the object of the experience existing- the divine and God are not the only conclusions that could be drawn and such conclusions can be reduced to psychological factors (e.g. sexual repression), sociological influences (projection of society) or anthropological needs (to access social or political power)

3) subject-related challenge

"One must not assume some undetected (and probably undetectable) pathology in an otherwise healthy individual..." Franks Davis

- questions around the unreliability, impairment or moral vulnerability of the subject of religious experiences and identify determining factors such as physiological states (e.g. intoxication

Challenges to the objectivity and authenticity of religious experience are valid. Evaluate this view.

1) description-related challenge

“These principles of credulity and testimony are ultimate principles of rationality" Franks Davis

- these challenges involve misremembering, exaggerating, misusing terms or telling lies, unable to provide linguistic precision about the religious experience

C: Franks Davis: a religious experience cannot provide linguistic precision as it is describing something beyond normal experience; those with highly interpreted experiences are often willing to discuss them more objectively

2) object-related challenge

"Religious experiences are not the sort of thing which can easily be produced for observation in a controlled setting." Franks Davis

- these challenges centre on the implausibility of the object

of the experience existing- the divine and God are not the only conclusions that could be drawn

C: Franks Davis: many religious experiences do not claim be the only authority, but rather serve as cumulative evidence as part of a wider argument- one-off experiences can still be valid even if never repeated

3) subject-related challenge

"One must not assume some undetected (and probably undetectable) pathology in an otherwise healthy individual..." Franks Davis

- questions around the unreliability, impairment or moral vulnerability of the subject of religious experiences and identify determining factors such as physiological states (e.g. intoxication

C: Franks Davis: If a credible subject gives a credible description of their experience, then we have no basis not to accept their experience as evidence for the truth of what they experienced

Examine the influence that religious experience has for the religious community.

1) affirmation of belief system

"the believer who has communicated with his god…is a man who is stronger" Durkheim

- most religions have a central figure who has a major experience to start their ministry- this gives them their authority as the experiences are seen to confirm their claims (e.g. Buddha)

2) promotion of faith value system

"we cannot keep from speaking about what we have seen and heard" Acts 4:20

- religious experience can confirm the divine's intention or plan for you- people often rededicate their lives to religion following religious experiences

3) strengthening cohesion of religious community

"the best fruits of the religious experience are the best things history has to offer… charity, devotion, trust, patience and bravery" James

- is a source of ethical standards e.g. 10 commandments- guides Christians with what to do/believe/rules to follow, giving a sense of purpose and reducing death anxiety

Examine the influence that religious experience has for the individual.

1) faith restoring

"the believer who has communicated with his god…is a man who is stronger" Durkheim

- Martin Buber differentiated between an I-It (Factual/impersonal) relationship and an I-Thou (personal / emotional) relationship- religious experience can be said to produce the unity of the I-Thou relationship with the divine

2) strengthening faith in face of opposition

"we cannot keep from speaking about what we have seen and heard" Acts 4:20

- according to William James, religious experience leads to the fruits or valuable qualities of genuine faith such as devotion, strength, and charity to help them deal with those who seek to oppose their religion

3) renewal of commitment to religious ideals and doctrines

"the best fruits of the religious experience are the best things history has to offer… charity, devotion, trust, patience and bravery" James

- he experience authenticates the claim of the religion- e.g. if somebody is cured of an illness, it reinforces the idea of God as an omnibenevolent, omnipotent and just character

Examine the term 'miracle' with reference to three scholars.

1) Aquinas

"a miracle is...that which has a divine cause, not that whose cause a human person fails to understand."

- miracles are not contrary to nature, they tap into hidden potentials placed in nature by God so are only contrary to our understanding

2) Hume

[miracles are] "a violation of natural law"

- laws of nature are absolute and uniform- laws should be altered to accommodate new information- nothing can violate the law if we don;t understand the law- miracles don't work as they are outside of Natural Law

3) Holland

"a remarkable and beneficial coincidence that is interpreted in a religious way"

- if several reliable witnesses came forward than the law of nature would need to be revised or falsified, however argues this is unhelpful and miracles should be seen as coincidences

4) Swinburne

"an occurrence of a non-repeatable counter instance to a law of nature"

- even if it's a divine act, it doesn't make it a miracle, miracles hold deeper religious significance, and they should not been seen as an end into themselves, instead they should always point to and significantly contribute towards something divine.

Explain reasons why religious believers accept that miracles occur.

1) evidence from sacred writings

"the believer who has communicated with his god…is a man who is stronger" Durkheim

- - many sacred texts have accounts of miracles to vindicate the claims of those who are accepted as God's messengers e.g. Jesus brings Lazarus back from the dead- therefore believers claim they have reason to accept miracles as their sacred writings (often considered the word of God) contain miraculous accounts

2) affirmation of faith traditions

"a miracle is...that which has a divine cause, not that whose cause a human person fails to understand." Aquinas

- miracles function as a divine signature- many believers claim only the true religion has miracles while all other religions have no/false miracles- God had an interest in commination and people recognising the message was from God than miracles are to be expected

3) personal experience

"a remarkable and beneficial coincidence that is interpreted in a religious way" Holland

- experiencing a miracle boosts personal Faith e.g. Lourdes. - Danla Castelli had a tumour and the committee concluded the way she was healed remains unexplained by scientific knowledge- belief in a personal God leads to prayers for intercession. (often when things are not going well e.g. sickness)

Different definitions of miracles can be considered as entirely contradictory. Evaluate this view

1) Interventionist v Coincidental

"a remarkable and beneficial coincidence that is interpreted in a religious way" Holland

- Hume and Swinburne see God as interventionist and breaking laws of nature, whereas Holland sees them as natural courses of events and amazing coincidences

C: may not be a contradiction, but may just be describing different types of miracles, Holland describing a contingency miracle and Hume and Swinburne describing 'violation' miracles

2) Possibility of miracles happening

[miracles are] "a violation of natural law" Hume

- Hume's hard v soft: hard = there is no possibility of miracles happening, soft = possibility that miracles could occur rather than they do occur

C: Swinburne sees his understanding of miracles as consistent with the existence of a God, showing that there is not a contradiction

3) Purpose of miracles

"an occurrence of a non-repeatable counter instance to a law of nature" Swinburne

- Hume does not consider the purpose of miracles in his definition, unlike Holland (bring about religious conviction) and Swinburne (point to and significantly contribute towards something divine)

C: no contradiction but they merely focus on different areas and acknowledge different types of miracles, each definition is useful to a religious believer in the way it is used to strengthen their faith

Hume's challenges to belief in miracles are effective. Evaluate this view. (Hume v Swinburne)

1) Hume: no miracle has sufficient number of witnesses. (a quantity of educated, trustworthy witnesses to a public event)

"There is not to be found in all history, any miracle attested by a sufficient number of men of such unquestioned good sense education and learning" Hume

C: Swinburne - questions what constitutes a 'sufficient' number of witnesses, arbitrary

2) Hume: people are prone to look for marvels and wonders. /people know they are fake yet preserve in them for holy cause

"If the spirit of religion...these circumstances loses all pretensions to authority" Hume

C: Swinburne - Hume has been known to dismiss a miracle based on the claim it was a miracle without taking into account the number, integrity and education of witnesses

3) Hume: the source of Miracles are from ignorant people

"people will be found to have received them from ignorant and barbarous ancestors." Hume

C: Swinburne - unless there is a reason to disbelieve someone (e.g. known liar), you should believe them, principle of testimony

Religious philosophers have solved the inherent problems of religious language. Evaluate this view.

1) Analogy

- Aquinas analogy of attribution: we humans have qualities like power, love and knowledge, so we can conclude (and therefore meaningfully say) that our creator also has qualities of power, love and knowledge that are analogous to our own

C: analogy does not give us a clearer 'picture' as it does not allow us to understand what God really is like, only by analogy

2) Language games

"the meaning of a word is its use in the language." Wittgenstein

- Language is a facility used by people to communicate ideas specific to their particular form of life their game, therefore religious language is meaningful in the religious context that it is understood within

C: games and God are dissimilar, the theory offers no objective definition of God making it as good as impossible to talk meaningfully of God

3) Myths

"myths are always present in every act of faith" Tillich

- mythological language is not intended to be interpreted literally, so meaning is conveyed using complex pictures and symbols, provide a means of expressing fundamental religious truths that cannot otherwise be expressed

C: meanings of myths change over time as they reflect the values of society as societal constructs, may be unable to clearly use religious language

'Understanding religious language as mythical solves the problems of religious language.' Evaluate this view.

1) reflect religious culture

"myths are always present in every act of faith" Tillich

- myths talk about events surrounding the natural world and how it came to be using metaphorical, symbolic, and complex language- they hold within them deep and lasting truths integral to the culture from which they originate

C: meanings of myths change over time as they reflect the values of society as societal constructs, may be unable to clearly use religious language

2) express fundamental religious truths that cannot otherwise be expressed

"nothing less than symbols and myths can express our ultimate concern" Tillich

- myths use deeply symbolic language in order to express religious truths that are often hard to describe e.g. creation myths

C: Different religions may present different myths, for example, regarding Creation. Claims are made in the myths relating to truth. Competing claims may invalidate faith-based truth claims in all religions.

3) myth is part of the collective unconscious

"religious images are that by which you can discover who you are and what you can become" Palmer

- expression of the collective unconscious, gives humans an understanding of what it means to be human, enables us to individuate successfully and make sense of a confusing world

C: no empirical evidence of a collective unconscious, therefore how can it be proved?

Language games provide a suitable way of resolving the problems of religious language. Evaluate this view.

1) accounts for varying religious views without denying them

"the meaning of a word is its use in the language." Wittgenstein

- Language is a social and public activity through this it is understood and meaning established and there are many ways to use language (many ways to play games)

C: games and God are dissimilar, the theory offers no objective definition of God making it as good as impossible to talk meaningfully of God

2) adopts a coherence theory of truth

"One can mistrust one's own senses, but not ones own belief" Wittgenstein

- coherence and consistency are important features if a theoretical system, and these properties are sufficient to it (true if a group of people believe it to be true), showing that if something has meaning to someone it is valid for them

C: two groups can't communicate meaningfully if they disagree, meaning it is a divisive theory

3) understands the importance of context

"Every word has a meaning. This meaning is correlated with the word. It is the object for which the word stands." Wittgenstein

- Meaning comes from the context it is used in and thus provides meaning to those playing the game, even if the meaning is not always clear to those outside of the game, by learning the rules of the game we can understand the meaning of the sounds associated to it.

C: language games are non cognitive so no religious statement made into a language game can be held up to be objectively true- yet to many theists the statement 'God is real' is objectively true so they would find this position distasteful at best