AP Psychology Unit 1: Biological Basis Of Behavior

Neuron

neural cell that transmits information

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. When depolarization begins at -55 MV (from -70 MV)

all-or-nothing response

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.

resting potential

stable electrical charge across neurons membrane when not actively sending signals

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

mimics action of neurotransmitter, encourages neural firing

Antagonists

drugs that discourage neural firing

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferant) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body, skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system) voluntary

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms. involuntary

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared) fight or flight

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body conserving its energy

reflex arc

in the spinal cord, it demonstrates how neurons within central and peripheral nervous systems work together to respond to stimuli, 3 types work together in spinal cord to create this (sensory, motor, and inter neurons)

Endocrine system

The bodys slow, chemical communication system a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Pituitary gland

"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesioning

procedure where specific areas of the brain or other tissues are intentionally damaged or destroyed (usually with heat, cold, or electrical currents) to treat certain medical conditions, like seizures or psychiatric disorders. It’s typically done when other treatments haven’t worked.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computers into a composite representation of a slice through the body also called a CAT scan

(PET) Positron emission tomography scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a TECHNIQUE THAT USES MAGNETIC FIELDS AND RADIO WAVES TO PRODUCE COMPUTER generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Medualla

The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

the brains 'sensory switch board' Located at top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to cerebellum and medulla.

reticular activating system

control voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning cognition and emotion

Cerebellum

functions including controlling coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning

Limbic system

A system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

2Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.

Hippocampus

Limbic system. Learning and memory matcher.

Hypothalamous

A neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral cortex

Fabric of interconnected neuron cells. Higher order thinking. Takes meaning and puts it to focus. The body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells

Cells that process structure insulation communication and waste transport, helping neurons

Frontal Lobes

behind forehead, decision making, problem solving, control linguistic processing, higher order thinking, and executive function especially in prefrontal cortex

Parietal lobes

control association areas, which process and organize sensory info and body position, and somatosensory cortex which processes touch sensitivity

Occipital lobes

visual information processing, located in rear of brain

Temporal lobes

control auditory and linguistic processing and located on sides of brain

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary and skeletal movement

somatosensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes, processes touch sensitivity, that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

The brain's ability to require itself or create new connections, allows for function of damaged part of brain to be assumed by a different part of the brain

Corpus Callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain

severing corpus callosum, reveals the right and left hemispheres specialize in different activities and functions

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change

shift work

work schedules of employees, can disrupt circadian rhythm

Nature vs. Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

depolarization of neuron

sodium gates open and let sodium into the axon, causing the axon to be more positive than the outside

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its replacement by plaques of sclerotic (hard) tissue, numbness, impairment of speech, struggling muscle coordination

Myesthenia Gravis

Caused by a disorder in the transmission of impulses from nerve to muscle cell involves blocking reception of acetylcholine, leads to different levels of muscle weakness

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

Seratonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; linked to depression and treated by Prozac. (Blocks reuptake of seratonin, activating more seratonin in neural pathways, therefore elevating mood.)

Norepinephrine or Noradrenaline

Helps control, alertness, and arousal

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Endorphins

“Morphine within” natural opiate, like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

Substance P function

regulation of pain

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning in memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Adrenaline (hormone)

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress. Released from adrenal glands

Leptin

a hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a factor in regulating appetite

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding. Creates feelings of love.

Reuptake inhibitors

drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the cell

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as Marijuana and LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Opioids (narcotics)

relieve pain and produce euphoria

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

A physiological or psychological dependence on a drug characterized by tolerance and withdrawal

withdrawal symptoms

Unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense drug cravings, that occur when a person abstains from a drug on which he or she is physically dependent.

right hemisphere of brain

The right hemisphere of the brain is responsible for control of the left side of the body, and is the more artistic and creative side of the brain.

left hemisphere of brain

The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for control of the right side of the body, and is the more academic and logical side of the brain.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking, expressive aphasia) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding, receptive aphasia)

contralateral organization

opposite-side organization, in which stimulation of neurons on one side of the body or sensory organ is represented by the activity of neurons in the opposite side of the brain

plasticity of the brain

ability to reorganize and modify functions and adapt to internal and external changes.

levels of consciousness

Wakefulness, Sleep, Unconscious, Pre-Conscious, or Altered States (Psychoactive Drugs, Hypnosis, Meditation)

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Stages of sleep

1. Lightest Sleep (NREM) 2. Slightly Deeper Sleep and Sleep Spindles (NREM) 3. Deeper Sleep (NREM) 5. REM

hypnogogic sensations

sensations of falling or floating that are sometimes later incorporated into memories. Can cause hynic jerks or hypnogogic hallucinations.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Dreaming in REM

have more detailed and intricate dreams. wake up quickly and alert

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

REM behavior disorder (RBD)

a rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

occurs when a person arises and walks around while asleep in stage 3 (NREM)

Activation-synthesis Theory of dreams

The theory that dreams are a by-product of random, spontaneous stimulation of brain cells during sleep, which the brain combines (synthesizes) into coherent patterns, known as dreams.