Modern Western Traditions Midterm.

Enlightenment

An intellectual and cultural movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and individual freedoms over tradition and religion.

Ancient Regime (Old Regime)

The pre-revolutionary social and political system in France, characterized by a monarchy and three rigid social classes called Estates.

Three Estates

The social classes in pre-revolutionary France: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners, including merchants, craftsmen, and peasants).

Divine Right

The belief that a monarch's authority to rule comes directly from God.

Estates-General

An assembly of representatives from the Three Estates, called by King Louis XVI in 1789 for the first time in 175 years.

National Assembly

A group formed by the Third Estate that broke away from the Estates-General to draft a new constitution and push for fair representation.

Bastille

A prison in Paris and symbol of royal power, stormed on July 14, 1789, marking the start of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

A document from the French Revolution proclaiming individual rights and freedoms as fundamental to human nature and the role of government to protect them.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution led by the Jacobins and Robespierre, where dissent was suppressed through mass executions of perceived enemies.

Jacobins

An extremist political group during the French Revolution that sought radical societal transformation and led the Reign of Terror.

Maximilien Robespierre

Leader of the Jacobins during the French Revolution, instrumental in the Reign of Terror before being overthrown and executed.

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

The motto of the French Revolution emphasizing freedom, equal rights, and brotherhood.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A French general who rose to power during the Revolution, became Emperor of France, and claimed to defend the Revolution's democratic ideals.

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI, mocked as "Madame Déficit" for her extravagance, and executed during the Revolution.

Feudal System

The hierarchical social and economic system in pre-revolutionary France, where peasants worked and paid taxes to the nobles and clergy.

American Revolution

A successful colonial revolt against England that inspired the French Revolution and contributed to France's financial debt.

Jacques Necker

Finance minister under King Louis XVI who proposed tax reforms and gained public support by publishing government finances.

Louis XVI

The monarch of France during the French Revolution, executed for treason after attempting to flee the country.

September 21, 1792

The date marking the declaration of the First French Republic.

French Republic

A government established after the monarchy's abolition, proclaiming equality and democratic values, though marked by political turmoil.

English Civil War

A series of wars between Parliament and Royalists resulting in 190,000 deaths and the execution of King Charles I.

Causes of the Civil War

Religion, power, and money were the primary sources of tension between Charles I and Parliament.

Religion as a Cause

Disagreements over worship styles; Puritans favored plain worship, while Charles supported ceremonial practices seen as too Catholic.

Divine Right of Kings

The belief that the king’s authority was given directly by God, making him unaccountable to Parliament.

Parliament’s Role

Controlled taxation, giving it influence over funding wars and government operations despite limited overall power.

Money as a Cause

Charles imposed forced loans, exploited old laws, and created new money-raising schemes when Parliament refused taxes, angering the population.

Dismissal of Parliament

Charles dismissed Parliament in 1629 and ruled without it for 11 years, alienating opposition.

Scottish Rebellion

Sparked by Charles I introducing a new Book of Common Prayer in Scotland, leading to war and the recall of Parliament for funds.

Attempt to Arrest Parliamentarians

In 1642, Charles tried to arrest five opponents in Parliament, but they escaped, worsening his reputation.

Roundheads

Nickname for the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War.

Cavaliers

Nickname for the Royalist forces loyal to King Charles I during the English Civil War.

19 Propositions

A list of parliamentary demands for religious reforms and increased power that Charles rejected, triggering the war.

Outcome of the Civil War

Charles I was defeated, captured, and executed, leading to a brief republican period in England.

Restoration of the Monarchy

Charles II returned to the throne in 1660, agreeing to restrictions on royal power to prevent future absolute rule.

Protestant Reformation

A major movement in the 16th century that led to the division of Western Christianity into Catholicism and various Protestant denominations.

Roman Catholic Church (Before Reformation)

The dominant form of Christianity in Europe, wielding immense spiritual, political, and economic power, including owning over one-third of the land in Europe.

Indulgences

Donations to the Catholic Church in exchange for a reduction in time spent in purgatory, heavily criticized by reformers like Martin Luther.

Martin Luther

A German monk whose 95 Theses against indulgences and call for reform sparked the Protestant Reformation.

95 Theses

A list of propositions by Martin Luther, criticizing Church practices like the sale of indulgences, often seen as the start of the Reformation.

Sola Fide

Latin for 'faith alone,' Luther's doctrine emphasizing that salvation is achieved through faith rather than good works or church rituals.

Diet of Worms

A 1521 assembly where Martin Luther defended his views before the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, refusing to recant his writings.

Printing Press

A revolutionary technology that spread Luther’s ideas quickly through pamphlets, books, and translated Bibles, reaching a wide audience.

Luther’s German Bible

Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible into German, making scripture accessible to the common people for the first time.

Priesthood of All Believers

Luther’s belief that all Christians have direct access to God without needing clergy as intermediaries.

Zwinglians, Calvinists, Anabaptists

Early Protestant groups that formed after Luther, each with distinct interpretations of scripture and worship practices.

German Peasants’ Revolt

A 1525 uprising inspired partly by Luther’s ideas, in which peasants sought to end serfdom and social inequality.

King Henry VIII

English monarch who broke from the Catholic Church to establish the Anglican Church, partly due to political and personal motives.

Grand Master Albert

The first ruler to adopt Lutheranism officially, dissolving the Teutonic Order and establishing the Duchy of Prussia.

Confiscation of Church Lands

A key incentive for monarchs to adopt Protestantism, allowing them to seize Church wealth and consolidate power.

Saxon Elector John Frederick

A Protestant leader who chose faith over political power, refusing to renounce his beliefs even under Catholic pressure.

Religious Toleration

A gradual outcome of the Reformation as Europe adjusted to coexistence between Catholics and Protestants after years of conflict.

Max Weber’s Theory

The idea that the Protestant Reformation laid the foundation for modern capitalism through its emphasis on hard work, discipline, and individual responsibility.

Protestant Reformation in England

Started when Henry VIII established the Church of England to get a divorce.

English Reformation

England broke from the Catholic Church; monarch became head of the Church of England.

Key Changes

Monasteries dissolved, English services established, and simplified worship introduced.

Henry VIII's Faith

Initially Catholic, titled 'Defender of the Faith' by the Pope in 1521.

Marriage Issue

Henry VIII wanted to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon but was denied by the Pope.

Acts of 1532-1534

Act of Supremacy made the monarch the head of the Church; Act in Restraint of Appeals made the monarch the highest authority.

Dissolution of Monasteries

Closed from 1536-1540; wealth redistributed to the crown.

Pilgrimage of Grace

40,000 protested Reformation changes; leaders executed.

Edward VI’s Reforms

Introduced English services, Book of Common Prayer, and removed Catholic practices.

Mary I’s Reversal

Restored Catholicism, burned 287 Protestants, and reinstated Papal authority.

Elizabeth I’s Settlement

Reinstated Protestantism, declared herself Supreme Governor of the Church, and mandated church attendance.

Anglicanism

Elizabeth’s moderate, lasting Protestant settlement.

Renaissance

'Rebirth' of classical Greek and Roman culture.

Humanism

Focus on human potential and achievement.

Petrarch

Father of Humanism, revived classical texts.

Lorenzo Valla

Challenged church authority through philology.

Giovanni Pico

Oration on the Dignity of Man, emphasized human potential.

Civic Humanism

Applying humanism to public life.

Castiglione

Author of The Courtier—ideal educated man.

Machiavelli

Author of The Prince—maintain power at all costs.

Naturalism

Realistic depictions in art.

Leonardo da Vinci

Creator of The Last Supper—geometric perspective.

Michelangelo

Creator of David—human form, Greek influence.

Raphael

Creator of School of Athens—classical and humanist themes.

Brunelleschi

Architect of San Lorenzo Church—Roman architecture.

Printing Press

Spread Renaissance ideas quickly.

Education

Focus on liberal studies—rhetoric, logic, history.

Medici Family

Major art patrons in Florence.

Scientific Revolution

A period of drastic change in scientific thought and discovery in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher whose cosmology placed Earth at the center of the universe.

Geocentric Model

The theory that Earth is at the center of the universe, with the sun and other planets revolving around it.

Heliocentric Model

The theory that the Sun is at the center of the universe, and Earth, along with other planets, revolves around it.

Nicholas Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model, challenging the geocentric view.

Johannes Kepler

Astronomer who established three laws of planetary motion, including elliptical orbits.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who used the telescope to support the heliocentric model and made major astronomical observations.

Telescope

An optical instrument used to observe distant objects, improved by Galileo to study planets.

Catholic Reformation

A movement within the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming the church and its practices.

Isaac Newton

Scientist who formulated the law of universal gravitation, explaining how planetary bodies are held in orbit.

Universal Gravitation

Newton's theory that gravity is a force keeping planets in motion around the Sun.

Galen

Ancient Greek physician whose theories on human anatomy and health were widely accepted.

Humoral Theory

Galen’s belief that the body contained four humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) that affected health.

Paracelsus

Physician who rejected the humoral theory of disease, proposing that chemical imbalances caused illness.

Andreas Vesalius

Physician who contributed to human anatomy by dissecting bodies and publishing findings that contradicted Galen’s theories.

William Harvey

Physician who discovered that blood circulates through the body in a single system, overturning Galen’s theory.

Empiricism

The theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience, promoted by Francis Bacon.

Inductive Reasoning

The process of reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions, advocated by Bacon.

Deductive Reasoning

A method of reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions, used by René Descartes.

Alchemy

The medieval practice of attempting to turn base metals into gold or silver.