Modern Western Traditions Midterm.

French Civil war Causes:

1. Enlightenment: An intellectual and cultural movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and individual freedoms over tradition and religion.

2. Ancient Regime (Old Regime): The pre-revolutionary social and political system in France, characterized by a monarchy and three rigid social classes called Estates.

3. Three Estates: The social classes in pre-revolutionary France: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners, including merchants, craftsmen, and peasants).

4. Divine Right: The belief that a monarch's authority to rule comes directly from God.

5. Estates-General: An assembly of representatives from the Three Estates, called by King Louis XVI in 1789 for the first time in 175 years.

6. National Assembly: A group formed by the Third Estate that broke away from the Estates-General to draft a new constitution and push for fair representation.

7. Bastille: A prison in Paris and symbol of royal power, stormed on July 14, 1789, marking the start of the French Revolution.

8. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: A document from the French Revolution proclaiming individual rights and freedoms as fundamental to human nature and the role of government to protect them.

9. Reign of Terror: A period during the French Revolution led by the Jacobins and Robespierre, where dissent was suppressed through mass executions of perceived enemies.

10. Jacobins: An extremist political group during the French Revolution that sought radical societal transformation and led the Reign of Terror.

11. Maximilien Robespierre: Leader of the Jacobins during the French Revolution, instrumental in the Reign of Terror before being overthrown and executed.

12. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: The motto of the French Revolution emphasizing freedom, equal rights, and brotherhood.

13. Napoleon Bonaparte: A French general who rose to power during the Revolution, became Emperor of France, and claimed to defend the Revolution's democratic ideals.

14. Marie Antoinette: Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI, mocked as "Madame Déficit" for her extravagance, and executed during the Revolution.

15. Feudal System: The hierarchical social and economic system in pre-revolutionary France, where peasants worked and paid taxes to the nobles and clergy.

16. American Revolution: A successful colonial revolt against England that inspired the French Revolution and contributed to France's financial debt.

17. Jacques Necker: Finance minister under King Louis XVI who proposed tax reforms and gained public support by publishing government finances.

18. Louis XVI: The monarch of France during the French Revolution, executed for treason after attempting to flee the country.

19. September 21, 1792: The date marking the declaration of the First French Republic.

20. French Republic: A government established after the monarchy's abolition, proclaiming equality and democratic values, though marked by political turmoil.

English Civil War Causes:

1. English Civil War: A series of wars between Parliament and Royalists resulting in 190,000 deaths and the execution of King Charles I.

2. Causes of the Civil War: Religion, power, and money were the primary sources of tension between Charles I and Parliament.

3. Religion as a Cause: Disagreements over worship styles; Puritans favored plain worship, while Charles supported ceremonial practices seen as too Catholic.

4. Divine Right of Kings: The belief that the king’s authority was given directly by God, making him unaccountable to Parliament.

5. Parliament’s Role: Controlled taxation, giving it influence over funding wars and government operations despite limited overall power.

6. Money as a Cause: Charles imposed forced loans, exploited old laws, and created new money-raising schemes when Parliament refused taxes, angering the population.

7. Dismissal of Parliament: Charles dismissed Parliament in 1629 and ruled without it for 11 years, alienating opposition.

8. Scottish Rebellion: Sparked by Charles I introducing a new Book of Common Prayer in Scotland, leading to war and the recall of Parliament for funds.

9. Attempt to Arrest Parliamentarians: In 1642, Charles tried to arrest five opponents in Parliament, but they escaped, worsening his reputation.

10. Roundheads: Nickname for the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War.

11. Cavaliers: Nickname for the Royalist forces loyal to King Charles I during the English Civil War.

12. 19 Propositions: A list of parliamentary demands for religious reforms and increased power that Charles rejected, triggering the war.

13. Outcome of the Civil War: Charles I was defeated, captured, and executed, leading to a brief republican period in England.

14. Restoration of the Monarchy: Charles II returned to the throne in 1660, agreeing to restrictions on royal power to prevent future absolute rule.

Martin Luther and Reformation:

1. Protestant Reformation: A major movement in the 16th century that led to the division of Western Christianity into Catholicism and various Protestant denominations. It initiated significant religious, political, and social changes.

2. Roman Catholic Church (Before Reformation): The dominant form of Christianity in Europe, wielding immense spiritual, political, and economic power, including owning over one-third of the land in Europe.

3. Indulgences: Donations to the Catholic Church in exchange for a reduction in time spent in purgatory, heavily criticized by reformers like Martin Luther.

4. Martin Luther: A German monk whose 95 Theses against indulgences and call for reform sparked the Protestant Reformation. He championed salvation through faith alone (sola fide).

5. 95 Theses: A list of propositions by Martin Luther, criticizing Church practices like the sale of indulgences, often seen as the start of the Reformation.

6. Sola Fide: Latin for "faith alone," Luther's doctrine emphasizing that salvation is achieved through faith rather than good works or church rituals.

7. Diet of Worms: A 1521 assembly where Martin Luther defended his views before the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, refusing to recant his writings.

8. Printing Press: A revolutionary technology that spread Luther’s ideas quickly through pamphlets, books, and translated Bibles, reaching a wide audience.

9. Luther’s German Bible: Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible into German, making scripture accessible to the common people for the first time.

10. Priesthood of All Believers: Luther’s belief that all Christians have direct access to God without needing clergy as intermediaries.

11. Zwinglians, Calvinists, Anabaptists: Early Protestant groups that formed after Luther, each with distinct interpretations of scripture and worship practices.

12. German Peasants’ Revolt: A 1525 uprising inspired partly by Luther’s ideas, in which peasants sought to end serfdom and social inequality. It was brutally suppressed.

13. King Henry VIII: English monarch who broke from the Catholic Church to establish the Anglican Church, partly due to political and personal motives.

14. Grand Master Albert: The first ruler to adopt Lutheranism officially, dissolving the Teutonic Order and establishing the Duchy of Prussia.

15. Confiscation of Church Lands: A key incentive for monarchs to adopt Protestantism, allowing them to seize Church wealth and consolidate power.

16. Saxon Elector John Frederick: A Protestant leader who chose faith over political power, refusing to renounce his beliefs even under Catholic pressure.

17. Religious Toleration: A gradual outcome of the Reformation as Europe adjusted to coexistence between Catholics and Protestants after years of conflict.

18. Max Weber’s Theory: The idea that the Protestant Reformation laid the foundation for modern capitalism through its emphasis on hard work, discipline, and individual responsibility.

Henry VII and Reformation:

1. Protestant Reformation in England:
   Started when Henry VIII established the Church of England to get a divorce.

2. English Reformation:
   England broke from the Catholic Church; monarch became head of the Church of England.

3. Key Changes:

   • Monasteries dissolved

   • English services

   • Simplified worship

4. Henry VIII's Faith:
   Initially Catholic, titled "Defender of the Faith" by the Pope in 1521.

5. Marriage Issue:
   Henry VIII wanted to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon but was denied by the Pope.

6. Acts of 1532-1534:

   • Act of Supremacy: Monarch became head of the Church.

   • Act in Restraint of Appeals: Made the monarch the highest authority.

7. Dissolution of Monasteries:
   Closed from 1536-1540; wealth redistributed to the crown.

8. Pilgrimage of Grace:
   40,000 protested Reformation changes; leaders executed.

9. Edward VI’s Reforms:
   Introduced English services, Book of Common Prayer, and removed Catholic practices.

10. Mary I’s Reversal:
    Restored Catholicism, burned 287 Protestants, and reinstated Papal authority.

11. Elizabeth I’s Settlement:

• Reinstated Protestantism

• Declared herself Supreme Governor of the Church

• Mandatory Church attendance

12. Anglicanism:
    Elizabeth’s moderate, lasting Protestant settlement.

Renaissance Humanism:

1. Renaissance: "Rebirth" of classical Greek and Roman culture.

2. Humanism: Focus on human potential and achievement.

3. Petrarch: Father of Humanism, revived classical texts.

4. Lorenzo Valla: Challenged church authority through philology.

5. Giovanni Pico: Oration on the Dignity of Man, emphasized human potential.

6. Civic Humanism: Applying humanism to public life.

7. Castiglione: The Courtier—ideal educated man.

8. Machiavelli: The Prince—maintain power at all costs.

9. Naturalism: Realistic depictions in art.

10. Leonardo da Vinci: The Last Supper—geometric perspective.

11. Michelangelo: David—human form, Greek influence.

12. Raphael: School of Athens—classical and humanist themes.

13. Brunelleschi: San Lorenzo Church—Roman architecture.

14. Printing Press: Spread Renaissance ideas quickly.

15. Education: Focus on liberal studies—rhetoric, logic, history.

16. Medici Family: Major art patrons in Florence.

Scientific Revolution:

Scientific Revolution: A period of drastic change in scientific thought and discovery in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Aristotle: Greek philosopher whose cosmology placed Earth at the center of the universe.

Geocentric Model: The theory that Earth is at the center of the universe, with the sun and other planets revolving around it.

Heliocentric Model: The theory that the Sun is at the center of the universe, and Earth, along with other planets, revolves around it.

Nicholas Copernicus: Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model, challenging the geocentric view.

Johannes Kepler: Astronomer who established three laws of planetary motion, including elliptical orbits.

Galileo Galilei: Scientist who used the telescope to support the heliocentric model and made major astronomical observations.

Telescope: An optical instrument used to observe distant objects, improved by Galileo to study planets.

Catholic Reformation: A movement within the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming the church and its practices.

Isaac Newton: Scientist who formulated the law of universal gravitation, explaining how planetary bodies are held in orbit.

Universal Gravitation: Newton's theory that gravity is a force keeping planets in motion around the Sun.

Galen: Ancient Greek physician whose theories on human anatomy and health were widely accepted.

Humoral Theory: Galen’s belief that the body contained four humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) that affected health.

Paracelsus: Physician who rejected the humoral theory of disease, proposing that chemical imbalances caused illness.

Andreas Vesalius: Physician who contributed to human anatomy by dissecting bodies and publishing findings that contradicted Galen’s theories.

William Harvey: Physician who discovered that blood circulates through the body in a single system, overturning Galen’s theory.

Empiricism: The theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience, promoted by Francis Bacon.

Inductive Reasoning: The process of reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions, advocated by Bacon.

Deductive Reasoning: A method of reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions, used by René Descartes.

Alchemy: The medieval practice of attempting to turn base metals into gold or silver.

Astrology: The belief that the positions of planets and stars can influence human events.

Let me know if you need further clarification or more terms!The Enlightenment:

Enlightenment: 18th-century European intellectual movement applying rational thinking to social and human institutions.

Rationalism: Belief that everything in human life should be subjected to reason.

Baron de Montesquieu: French philosopher advocating for the separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny.

Voltaire: French philosopher criticizing social and religious intolerance and supporting religious freedom.

Denis Diderot: Co-founder of the Encyclopedia, cataloging Enlightenment ideas.

John Locke: Philosopher supporting natural rights (life, liberty, property) and governments protecting them.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Philosopher advocating for the social contract, where people consent to be governed to protect their rights.

Adam Smith: Economist criticizing mercantilism and promoting a free-market economy.

Deism: Belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.

Skepticism (David Hume): Belief that human knowledge is derived from sensory experience.

Atheism (Diderot): Belief that no God exists, rejecting traditional religious beliefs.

Here’s the information in term: definition format for flashcards:

Italian Renaissance City-States (Rise)

1. Italian City-State Wealth: Gained wealth through Mediterranean trade and banking (e.g., Florence, Venice).

2. Medici Family: Dominated Florence; wealthy bankers and art patrons.

3. City-State Politics: Governed as independent republics (Florence) or oligarchies (Venice).

4. Florentine Economy: Based on wool trade and banking.

5. Geography: Central location in Mediterranean trade routes fostered prosperity.

Italian Renaissance City-States (Fall)

6. Atlantic Trade Routes: Shifted economic power to Spain and Portugal, weakening Italian city-states.

7. French Invasions (1494): Triggered instability and wars in Italy.

8. Reformation Impact: Weakened the Catholic Church’s influence in Italy.

9. Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559): Ended Italian Wars; left Spain dominant in Italy.

10. Sack of Rome (1527): Marked the end of the Italian Renaissance’s prosperity.

Dutch Netherlands (Rise)

11. Dutch Republic: Decentralized provinces led by the States General and Stadtholder.

12. Dutch Golden Age: 17th-century dominance in trade, science, and art.

13. Trade Dominance: Dutch East India Company (VOC) controlled global shipping.

14. Religious Tolerance: Accepted Protestants, Jews, and others, fostering stability.

15. Calvinism: Promoted work ethic and governance in Dutch society.

Dutch Netherlands (Decline)

16. Anglo-Dutch Wars: Lost dominance to England in 17th-century naval conflicts.

17. English Navigation Acts: Restricted Dutch shipping, weakening their economy.

18. Political Weakness: Decentralized structure hindered military coordination.

19. French Invasions: Louis XIV’s wars strained Dutch resources.

20. Treaty of Utrecht (1713): Ended War of Spanish Succession, reducing Dutch influence.

Let me know if you need any adjustments!

Renaissance

• Purpose: Revive classical antiquity, celebrate humanism.

• Example: Michelangelo’s David (human potential).

• Technique: Linear perspective.

• Example: Leonardo’s The Last Supper (perspective).

• Role: Intellectuals, creators.

• Example of Role: Leonardo da Vinci, a polymath.

• Style: Symmetry, balance.

• Focus: Human anatomy, realism.

• Patronage: Wealthy families (e.g., Medicis).

• Iconic Work: Raphael’s School of Athens.

Baroque

• Purpose: Evoke emotion, show Church/monarch power.

• Example: Bernini’s Ecstasy of Saint Teresa.

• Technique: Dramatic lighting (chiaroscuro).

• Example: Caravaggio’s The Calling of St. Matthew.

• Role: Propagandist for Church/royalty.

• Example of Role: Peter Paul Rubens, court painter.

• Style: Ornate, dynamic.

• Focus: Movement, emotion.

• Patronage: Catholic Church, monarchs.

• Iconic Work: Versailles’ Hall of Mirrors.

Neoclassical

• Purpose: Enlightenment ideals, rationality.

• Example: David’s Oath of the Horatii (civic duty).

• Technique: Clean lines, minimalism.

• Example: Ingres’ Grande Odalisque.

• Role: Moral guide.

• Example of Role: David, political propagandist.

• Style: Simplicity, classical forms.

• Focus: Moral stories, heroism.

• Patronage: Revolutionary/Napoleonic.

• Iconic Work: Canova’s Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss.

Romanticism

• Purpose: Emotion, nature, individuality.

• Example: Friedrich’s Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog.

• Technique: Expressive brushstrokes, color.

• Example: Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People.

• Role: Visionary, emotional expression.

• Example of Role: Turner’s Rain, Steam, and Speed.

• Style: Imaginative, loose.

• Focus: Nature’s power, human emotion.

• Patronage: Nationalist/revolutionary.

• Iconic Work: Goya’s The Third of May 1808.

These are quick, digestible, and perfect for memorization!