PhySci Final Review Guide

How are carbohydrates produced?

Photosynthesis

what are the 3 places for carb storage? (1st, 2nd, 3rd choice)

Muscle, Liver, Adipose Tissue

What is a monosaccharide?

The simplest form of carbohydrate

What are the 3 main monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

what are the 3 disaccharides and which monosaccharides make them?

a. lactose: galactose + glucose

b. maltose: glucose + glucose

c. sucrose: glucose + fructose

what is a polysaccharide?

long chains of glucose molecules

what are the 3 types of polysaccharides that we have learned in class?

starch, glycogen, and fiber

which polysaccharide is glucose stored in?

glycogen

what is the main enzyme in the liver to convert glucose to glycogen?

glycogen synthase

why is fiber so important

a. it provides a fake sense of fullness with less calories consumed by expanding your stomach

b. it slows down digestion and absorption

why is fiber not digested in our digestive tract?

we lack enzymes to facilitate its breakdown

what is the difference between soluble fiber and insoluble fiber

soluble fiber: beneficial for the heart/cardiovascular system because it lowers the level of cholesterol in the intestine, which is then excreted in the feces. protects the heart by decreasing the level of cholesterol in the blood

insoluble fiber: it smoothes feces formation so it doesn’t cause damage in the digestive system

what is the normal range for blood sugar levels?

70-100 mg/dL

what two hormones are responsible for glucose homeostasis?

a. insulin

b. glucagon

what do we call the glucose transporter? where is it found?

GLUT 4 - located on cell membranes

lets talk about the process of releasing insulin. start by explaining when it is released.

when you eat a meal, there is a ton of glucose in the blood. the beta cells of the pancreas detect this and release insulin. the insulin binds to receptors, which create more GLUT4 transporters to allow glucose to enter in cells, leaving the blood and decreasing blood sugar levels

now lets talk through the process of releasing glucagon. start by explaining when it’s released

in between meals, your blood sugar levels are lower. the alpha cells of the pancreas detect this and release glucagon. it triggers the liver to convert stored glucose into usable form and release it into the blood stream.

what is the glycemic index?

a. glycemic index is the classification of carbs based on how quickly glucose levels rise

b. after digestion (low index is healthy). more specifically, it is based on how much one’s blood glucose level rises from eating a certain food compared to their blood glucose level 2-3 hours after ingesting 50g of pure glucose.

i. high glycemic index = high glycemic response, which means a lot of insulin is released when eating something (i.e. a whole loaf of bread)

what is glycemic load? what are the different ranges?

a. taking into consideration the glycemic index (lower is better)

i. less than 10: low

ii. 10-19: medium

iii. 20+ high

what is gluconeogenesis as it relates to amino acids

creating glucose from amino acids

1. our cells can’t use amino acids, they can only use glucose. so it turns essential and non-essential amino acids into glucose so that the cells can use them

2. gluconeogenesis as it relates to amino acids also takes into account deamination because it converts amino acids into energy

when does gluconeogenesis occur?

in cases of malnutrition or prolonged starvation

what are the 3 important -ases used in glucose digestion

a. salivary amylase

b. pancreatic amylase

c. disaccharidases

let’s walk through carbohydrate digestion

mouth secretes salivary amylase to break down into smaller molecules —> pharnx, esophagus, and upper stomach —> stomach releases pepsin and hydrochloric acid to denature salivary amylase —> pancreatic amylase breaks molecules into disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose) —> small intestine releases disaccharidase and breaks disaccharides into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose) —> monosaccharides are then absorbed into the body

what are the three components of a grain

bran (have fiber and vitamins)

endosperm (rich in starch)

germ (have lots of fiber and vitamins)

what is the building block of protein?

amino acids

how many amino acids are protein made up of?

20 total

what is the basic structure of amino acids?

a. a central carbon

b. has 4 bonds, amino group, hydrogen group, carboxyl group, and R group

what differentiates the different amino acids?

the R group changes

what is an essential amino acid?

it is an amino acid that the body cannot synthesize on its own and must obtain through diet

what is a non-essential amino acid?

it is an amino acid that the body cannot synthesize on its own and must obtain through diet

what is a non-essential amino acid?

an amino acid that the body can synthesize on its own

what is a complete vs incomplete protein? give an example

a. a complete protein is one that has all 9 essential amino acids (ex. meat, soy, egg whites, steak)

b. incomplete protein is missing one or more of the essential amino acids (ex. beans, nuts, sunflower seeds)

what is mutual supplementation of complementary proteins?

consuming complementary proteins that are incomplete so that you get a complete protein in your diet (ex. beans and rice)

list the 8 functions of proteins

a. transportation

b. technically used for energy

c. immunity/protection

d. chemical reactions (enzymes)

e. signaling

f. fluid balance

g. movement

h. growth/development

what is the equation for how much protein you should consume

0.8g per 1kg of body weight

what does actin and myosin do?

they are major proteins that are part of our muscles and give us the ability to move, talk, carry stuff, etc.

what is protein sparing?

protein can be used for energy, but the body spares it by using carbs and lipids isntead

what are the 3 types of lipids?

triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids

what is the composition of a triglyceride?

one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules

what is glycerol?

a sugar alcohol

how do you determine the level of saturation in fatty acids?

the number of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon?

what type of fatty acid are each?

linear chain

bent (kink due to double carbon bonds)

linear - saturated fatty acid

bent - unsaturated fatty acid

when is a fatty acid considered monounsaturated?

if there is one carbon-carbon double bond

when is a fatty acid considered polyunsaturated

if there is more than one double bond

how do we classify fatty acids?

the number of carbons in their chain and their level of saturation

what are the four lengths of fatty acid chains and what are those lengths

short-chain: less than 6

medium-chain: 6-12

long-chain: 13-21

extra long: 22+

what level of saturation is butter?

saturated

what level of saturation is oil?

unsaturated

why are saturated fatty acids solid at room temperature?

they have more surface area and tend to aggregate together (ex. stacking rulers on top of each other)

why are unsaturated fatty acids liquid at room temperature?

the molecule bends, resulting in less surface area and less aggregation (ex. think of stacking tennis balls on top of each other)

In unsaturated fatty acids we have cis and trans. what is the difference between the two?

cis - has two bulky groups of the molecule are on the same side - are bent

trans (think transitioning sides) - two bulky groups of the molecule are on opposite side. aggregate more. are straight

what types of fatty acids are essential?

linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3)

what is hydrogenation?

the process of synthesizing trans fatty acids using hydrogen atoms

are triglycerides water soluble or water insoluble?

water insoluble

what makes up a major component of the cell membrane?

phospholipids

what is the lipogenesis and lipolysis?

lipogensis: the process of excess glucose converting to fat (triglyceride); fat storage

lipolysis: fat breakdown. occurs when you work out

where are carbs and lipids absorbed?

in the small intestine

where are proteins absorbed?

in the stomach

what are the 3 main components of the digestive system?

a. absorption (bringing the food from whatever is digesting them and bringing it into the bloodstream)

b. digestion (breaking down molecules into smaller molecules)

c. excretion (getting rid of the things that are left behind)

what is considered a primary digestive organ?

organs that are in direct contact with the food; where food physically goes through

list the 5 primary digestive organs

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

what are accessory digestive organs

the organs that don’t really have food move into these organs but still play a major part

list the accessory digestive organs

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

true or false: accessory organs are as important as primary organs

true

how does food travel down the digestive system?

using our involuntary/smooth muscles to constantly contract and push food down

peristalsis: rhythmic contraction of food (contracts and releases) to push food down (ex. the esophagus. it happens throughout the body)

where is food absorbed?

the small intestine

describe the characteristics/causes of the following digestive disorder and which are the most and least serious

a. belching (accumulation of air in the digestive tract from eating too fast)

b. flatulence (natural gas produced by the metabolism from the food we eat. highest flatulence produces are fiber, beans, and dairy products)

c. heartburn (cardiac sphincter doesn’t tighten up all the way, allowing hydrochloric acid to travel up the esophagus, creating a burning sensation since the stomach is the only organ that can handle the acid. happens especially when you are lying down/sleeping. can be neutralized by taking peptobismal or turns by adding more bases.

d. GERD - gastroesophageal reflux disease (when you have heartburn over and over again. can be treated with meditations that decrease the amount of acid you produce so there are less chances of stomach acid rolling over into the esophagus)

e. ulcer (caused by heliobacteria pylori - bacteria - in the stomach. if you don’t eat for a while repeatedly; the bacteria gets hungry and start eating the walls of the stomach. when you eat something the HCI released burns the cuts/open sores/holes that the bacteria made. treated by antibiotics) caused by malnutrition

f. celiac disease (result of damage to the small intestine. when they eat gluten the small intestine gets inflammed by it. gluten is not unhealth. you don’t need to eat gluten-free food if you don’t have celiac disease

g. crohn’s disease (inflammation of the ileum - later half small intestine - sometimes also happens in the colon - symptoms include severe diarrhea, fever, fatigue, weight loss, abdominal pain, sever sickness)

h. ulcerative colitis (most serious, is characterized by the inflammation of the mucosal lining of the colon of the large intestine. by inflaming the mucous lining it gets rid of the lubrication on the walls, which leads to a lot of friction causing bloody stool. treatment - anti-inflammatory medication

when does gestational diabetes occur?

during pregnancy - pregnant women can’t make enough insulin to lower their blood sugar levels. sugar in the blood is higher than normal, meaning baby is nourished a lot during the pregnancy. grows a lot more than normal, requiring the mother to have a c-section. temporary form of diabetes

what is type 1 diabetes

beta cells are damaged and don’t just have enough insulin released. insulin uptake is low

what attacks the beta cells in type 1 diabetes? what is the name for this phenomenon?

immune system, this is called an auto-immune disease (when immune system attacks your own disease)

what are some treatments in type I diabetes

insulin pump (injection) - used to warn patients when their blood sugar is low and pumps sugar into body when it is low

what is type 2 diabetes?

beta cells release insulin normally, but the muscles and liver are not responding well to insulin. insulin uptake is low.

which type of diabetes is genetic? which type of diabetes is caused by lifestyle?

type 1 = genetic, gestational diabetes - unknown cause (may be genetic but definitely not lifestyle). type 2 - lifestyle

what is the set point/normal value for blood sugar levels?

70-100 mg/dL

what do alpha cells do?

releases glucagon raises blood sugar levels

what do beta cells do?

releases insulin to lower plasma glucose levels

what is the pancreas

an endocrine gland that releases insulin and glucogen

how do you diagnose diabetes?

glucometer - cheap device allowing diabetic patients to monitor their plasma sugar level

fasting plasma glucose - taking a blood sample from participants who have fasted for at least 8 hours

oral glucose tolerance test - you enter a fasting state (~8hours) where your blood sugar level is in the 70-100 mg/dL range

HbA1C - uses hemoglobin for carrying oxygen (glycosylated hemoglobin - measures the amount of glucose attached to your hemoglobin over 3 months)

• healthy: 4-5.6%

• pre-diabetes: 5.7-6.4%

• diabetic: 6.4% or higher

why should diabetics be physically active?

it makes glucose uptake into the cells independent of insulin

what are some complications/diseases that arises from diabetes?

(non-alcoholic) fatty liver disease

ketoacidosis

microvascular complications (nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy)

macrovascular complications (atherosclerosis)

what are the most common medications in type 2 diabetes patients

a. sulfonylureas - glyburide (lowers blood sugar. stimulates beta cells to release more insulin)

b. biguanides - metmorfin (lowers blood sugar by increasing insulin sensitivity)

what are some diets/techniques diabetics could implement

keto diet and fasting

which of the following statements is true about insulin:

a. insulin decreases the number of glucose transporters GLUTs in cell membrane

b. insulin increases digestion

c. insulin increases absorption

d. insulin have different effects on muscles than on the liver

e. insulin decreases amount of red blood cells in the circulation

f. insulin increases the number of GLUTs in cell membrane

F

incomplete proteins are not as healthy as complete proteins (true/false)

false

the amount of insulin released in the blood is proportional to the amount of glucose in the blood (true/false)

true

the amount of insulin released in the blood is proportional to the amount of glucose in the blood (true/false)

true

which hormone(s) regulate glucose levels in the blood?

a. insulin and glycogen

b. insulin and glucagon

c. cortisol

d. insulin

e. insulin and beta cells

f. glycogen

g. glucagon

B

which of the following is false regarding glycemic index (GI)?

a. GI tells us how quickly sugar from food is converted into glucose

b. foods that are digested quickly have higher GI

c. glucose has the highest GI
d. the glycemic index is obtained by looking at the amount of glucose in the blood after ingesting certain food and compare it to ingesting pure glucose

e. GI does not account for the quantity of carbohydrate on food

f. glycemic load is a function of glycemic index

g. foods that are digested quickly have lower GI

G

the central carbon of an amino acid is connected to how many other groups and atoms?

a. 20

b. 4

c. 16

d. 1

e. 7

f. 3

g. 5

h. 2

B

which of the following is a description of enzymes?

a. none of the choices

b. made of lipids

c. increase the amount of products and energy

d. establish communication between cells

e. speed up chemical reactions

E

which of the following is false about proteins?

a. protein function in metabolism, heredity, metabolic regulation, and immunity

b. muscles contain lots of proteins

c. all cells in the body synthesize the same protein

d. after consuming proteins, they are broken down to amino acids in the digestive system

e. proteins exist in every cell

C

sugar free food does not contain any sugars (true/false)

false

visceral fat is more dangerous than subcutaneous fat (true/false)

true

when an individual is trying to lose weight, only counting calories becomes very important (true/false)

false

which of the following diseases is caused by vitamin deficiency?

a. diarrhea

b. tuberculosis

c. diphtheria

d. senility

e. phneumonia

f. enteritis

g. none of the choices

A

which of the following is not a function of water?

a. muscle contraction

b. body temperature

c. fluid balance

d. nerve impulses

e. all the choices are functions of water

f. nutrient transport

g. excretion of waste products

E

which of the following molecules can be used as an energy source in cells?

a. carbohydrates, proteins, and vitamins

b. lipids

c. carbohydrates and lipids

d. carbohydrates

e. vitamins

f. proteins

g. carbohydrates, lipids, and vitamins

h. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and vitamins

i. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

i

1 gram of starch is equivalent to 4 calories (true/false)

true

which of the following diseases is the highest cause of death

a. cardiovascular diseases

b. respiratory illness

c. alzheimers

d. cancer

e. stroke

A

which of the following is not a risk factor of cardiovascular disease?

a. smoking

b. very high caloric expenditure

c. inactive lifestyle

d. stress

e. diabetes

B