Cognition Exam 2 (Final)

done as the semester goes on.... (please be consistent)

Recency Effect

the last few items are recalled better (because they are still in the working memory)

Primacy Effect

early items are recalled better (because of less interference)

Working memory

part of a larger system of information currently available for processing

Interference

competition between items, decreasing the likelihood of consolidation

Rehearsal

repetition of an item to facilitate consolidation

Consolidation

movement of information from short term memory to long term memory

Encoding

representation of information to be consolidated

Failure to consolidate

You will not remember something because it never made it into the long term memory, totally forgotten

Failure to retrieve

its not totally forgotten because its in the long term memory, but it is in the large “heap” of information and cannot be accessed at the moment.

Retrograde amnesia

cannot remember events that happened before the trauma (backwards in time)

Anterograde amnesia

cannot form new memories/ cannot remember after the date of the trauma (forwards in time)

Hippocampus

performs consolidation

Procedural memory

is a type of long-term memory responsible for knowing how to perform certain skills and tasks, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument.
(task that can be performed without consious effort)

Declaritive memory system

learn by consolidting a skill, specific information about past events or experiences, and facts or general knowledge

Episodic memory system

Memory from personal experience, pov (remembering what happened as it happened to you)

Semantic (propositional/ conceptual) memory system

knowledge of ideas/ facts not tied to personal experiences

Verbal short term memory

“phone number memory”
verbal distraction interferes with this type of encoding

Tape loop metaphor

brief loop of media that holds something and is repeated over and over again

Mental Imagry

knowledge of the appearance of things

Imagistic representations

auditory or tactile direct sensory experience

Iconic representations

visual representation of what you are trying to represent

Propoisitonal representations

representations of ideas that have factual contexts (true or false)

Analog

real picture that can be transformed (rotated)

Kosslyn

representations of mental images are in fact not real images in your head but rather depictions that represent pictures

Pylyshyn

representations of images are propositional or descriptive

is_a chart

used to show the hierarchical representation of knowledge

Property inheritance

allows properties to be “known” without being directly stored/ stated

the direct property wins when…

there is a conflict between a direct (has_property) property and an inherited property

distinctive properties

property that contrasts with the general property of a category
(ex: penguins cant fly)

reconstructive memory

Drawing an inference from some clues and you infer something that you believe is true that might not be true

(many things you remember are just implied from things that you remember and it is not a direct memory)

deduction

reasoning that is logically certian

general —> specific

induction

reasoning that is not deductive (not guaranteed to lead to true conclusions)

using the information to form conclusions

specific —> general

it rained on Saturday

it rained on Sunday

—> it only rains on weekends?

Hume’s problem

will the sun rise tomorrow? The belief that the sun will rise tomorrow is not logically certain; it is simply likely, given our experiences

positive and negative examples

is a squirrel, not a squirrel

conjunctive conclusion

conclusion one and conclusion two

disjunctive conclusion

conclusion one or conclusion two

affirmation conclusion

only needs one conclusion

classical veiw

categories are logical constructs and have definitions

definition

lists necessary and jointly suffiecient features

Necessary

means simply you have to have it

jointly sufficent

if you have it (all of them), then you are in that category

prototype view

suggests that categories have prototypes and that the more something deviates from this prototype, the less typical it is, leading it to bleed out of the category

prototypification

the process of creating prototypes to allow you to understand a concept

exemplar model/ veiw

no abstraction or prototypes, but are instead stored examples to assist in understanding a concept

prototype veiw is considered

rationalist, we are creating something that isn’t purely in the outside world

exemplar view is considered

empiricist, and all we have are bunches of experiences that we are comparing to old experiences. this comparison will tell us how to react

prototype veiw as an image

exemplar view as an image

connectionism

simply all functions are associations

backpropagation

the method of changing the weights of ____ by a small amount so next time something is sent through the input the output’s error will be less

error

the degree to which the output was incorrect

supervised learning

somebody in the system knows that the correct answer is and will conduct backpropagation to fix errors

Oracle

knowing the correct, true answer

biological plausibility

system that is brain-like in its organization

parallel compuation

the idea that all units are working at the same time, working in parallel

distributed knowledge

knowledge is not one weight on one bit of information on one specific neuron

prescriptivist question

How should reasoning work?

descriptivist question

how does reasoning work?

degree of belief

a number no greater than one that shows how certain we are that something will happen or is true

conjunction rule

A probability principle states that the probability of two events occurring together is less than or equal to the probability of either event occurring alone.

disjunction rule

A probability principle states that the probability of either of two events occurring is greater than or equal to the probability of each event occurring alone.

bays rule

how to rationally figure out what we should believe conditioned to what we know and prior data

prior probability

intal degree of belief before considering data (or doing a “fact check”)

posterior probability

degree of belief after considering data (after doing a “fact check”)

likelihood probability

the probability of observing the data given a specific hypothesis

normative

standard way to inference that will give you an “objectively correct” answer

irrational

forming inferences in a way that is incoherent or internally inconsistent

rational self-interest

acting on their own behalf

fallacies

errors in reasoning that lead to invalid arguments or conclusions. (also known as cognitive illusions)

heurisitc

clever “hacks” and tricks that give you reasonable answers in many situations but are not really correct

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that past random events affect future probabilities in games of chance, leading to incorrect assumptions about outcomes. (example: coin gives out the following outcome HTHHHTHTHHHHHH. the person would say that tails is next because it is “due”)

Hot hand fallacy

the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in the future. (Example: a basketball player making several consecutive shots is thought to be 'hot' and more likely to score again.)

Tversky and Kahneman are said to be ____

prescriptivists, and think that heuristics and biases are genuinely defective

Bayesian cognive science

the idea that the mind is approximately optimal in its use in its use of information

satisficing

doing something that is good enough, rather than doing something that is the best thing

availibilty heuristic

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. (words starting with s vs words with s in the 3rd place)

bounded rationaility

the idea that in decision-making, cognitive limitations and constraints often lead individuals to make satisfactory rather than optimal choices.

productivity

make an infinite number of things out of a finite number of means (ex: english only has so many words and rules, and yet we always say new sentences)

ape language- skinner correct?

Basic learning mechanism is the same, and apes are actually smart

ape language- chomsky correct?

Human language involves complex syntactic structures, many of which are innate and specific to humans, so apes will not be able to do it

competence

abstract knowledge held by a speaker of the language: you must (implicit) know to distinguish sentences of the language from non-sentences

performance

the details that deviate from the ideal competence, and the actual mechanisms for carrying it out (speaking and language)

universal grammar

common structures that are common to all human languages

critical period

time period in which it is the easiest to learn a language

poverty of the similus

childs linguistic input, by itself, does not seem to be sufficient for the child to figure out the rules (informational poverty) [mathematically, blank slate learning is impossible]

phonology

The study of the sounds of language

morphology

construction of words using units, these units carry meanings

morphemes

pieces of words that hold meaning and can be combined to form words

ex: reviewed= re[again] + view [to look] + ed [past tense]

Syntax

ordering words to form sentences (grammar)

semantics

meaning and logical form (translating syntax to an actually meaning)

pragmatics

practical aspects of conversations (what do I say next?)

generative grammar

system for producing all and only he legal structures in the given language

comprehension

from a series of words to a ———