APUSH Units 1 and 2: Early Contact with the New World (1491-1607) and Colonization of North America

Pre-Columbian Era

Period before Columbus arrived in the Americas in 1492, characterized by the diverse indigenous cultures and societies that existed across North America.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

Bering Strait

Land bridge (now submerged) that connected Asia and North America, allowing migration of early humans.

Pueblo people

Native American tribes known for their adobe dwellings and agricultural practices, primarily located in the Southwestern United States. Known for their multi-story stone houses consisting of hundreds of rooms. Urban culture

Plains tribes

Native American groups that inhabited the Great Plains, known for their nomadic lifestyle and reliance on bison hunting.

Maize

A staple crop cultivated by Native American societies, particularly in Mesoamerica and the Southwest. Transition from hunting and gathering to maize production enabled stable economies and organized societies to proser. Also encouraged advancements in agricultural practices like irrigation.

Aztecs

An ancient Mesoamerican civilization known for its large empire, complex social structure, and impressive architectural achievements, including pyramids. They practiced advanced agricultural techniques and had a rich culture with significant contributions to art and science. Human sacrifice was a ritual practice that involved offering captives to their gods, which they believed was necessary to ensure the continuation of the world. They were fierce warriors and were known for their military conquests and expansionist policies.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages. This exchange significantly impacted agriculture, diet, and economies on both sides of the Atlantic.

Conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who conquered vast territories in the Americas during the Age of Exploration. They were instrumental in the Spanish colonization of the New World, often seeking wealth and spreading Christianity.

Encomienda system

A labor system instituted by the Spanish crown in the Americas, granting colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianization.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in the Americas, often forming a distinct social class during the colonial period.

Zambos

People of mixed African and indigenous ancestry in the Americas, often facing social discrimination during the colonial period.

Spanish Armada Defeat

The defeat of the Spanish fleet by the English in 1588, marking a significant shift in naval power and the decline of Spanish dominance in the Atlantic. This defeat allowed England and France to challenge Spain's maritime supremacy and expand their own colonial ambitions in the Americas.

smallpox

a contagious disease brought by Europeans to the Americas, causing devastating epidemics among indigenous populations.

sextant

a navigational instrument used to measure the angle between two visible objects, essential for maritime exploration during the Age of Discovery.

joint-stock companies

business entities formed by groups of investors to finance colonial ventures, sharing profits and risks. These companies played a crucial role in the establishment of English colonies in North America.

Virginia Company

A joint-stock company established in 1606 to create the first permanent English settlement in North America, resulting in the founding of Jamestown in 1607.

Jamestown

the first permanent English settlement in North America, established by the Virginia Company in 1607.

Bartoleme de las Casas

A Spanish missionary and historian who advocated for the rights of Native Americans and opposed their enslavement, promoting reform of Spanish colonial policies.

Spanish mission system

A network of religious missions established by Spanish colonizers in the Americas to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity and facilitate Spanish colonization.

Juan de Onate

A Spanish explorer known for leading the expedition into present-day New Mexico and establishing the first Spanish colony in the region. He is also infamous for his harsh treatment of Native Americans and his desire to create Christian converts by any means necessary.

slavery

The practice of owning and exploiting individuals as property, often enforced through violence and coercion, prevalent in various societies including colonial America.

Maroon people

Communities formed by escaped enslaved people in the Americas, often living in remote areas and maintaining their cultural practices.

Sir Walter Raleigh

An English explorer and writer who played a key role in the English colonization of North America, notably sponsoring the failed Roanoke Colony. He is also known for popularizing tobacco in England.

John Smith

An English soldier and explorer who played a crucial role in the establishment of the Jamestown colony in Virginia, serving as its leader and helping to ensure its survival through his leadership and interactions with Native Americans.

Powhatan Confederacy

A coalition of several Algonquian-speaking tribes in Virginia, led by Chief Powhatan. They played a significant role in the early interactions between Native Americans and English settlers. The confederacy was formed to resist the encroachment of English settlers and to maintain control over trade and resources in the region.

the starving time

A period during the winter of 1609-1610 in Jamestown, Virginia, when food shortages and harsh conditions led to the deaths of many colonists. It was marked by extreme hardship and desperation, resulting in the near collapse of the settlement.

John Rolfe

An early English settler in Virginia known for introducing tobacco as a cash crop, which became vital for the colony's economy. He is also famous for his marriage to Pocahontas, which helped establish a temporary peace between the English settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy.

Pocahontas

Powhatan’s daughter. Powhatan diplomat who helped mediate between Native Americans and Jamestown settlers. Her marriage to John Rolfe fostered temporary peace between the two groups.

Tobacco

Cash crop that saved Jamestown, introduced by John Rolfe. It fueled economic growth in the Chesapeake, increased demand for land, and led to the expansion of slavery.

Chesapeake

Region including Virginia and Maryland, known for tobacco plantations, indentured servitude, and later reliance on slavery. Characterized by a profit-driven economy and a high mortality rate in the early colonial period.

Indentured servitude

Promised 7 years of labor in exchange for free passage, after which they would receive their freedom

Headright system

Granted land to colonists and potential settlers. Meant to attract new settlers to the region and address the labor shortage created by the emergence of tobacco farming, which required a lot of workers.

House of Burgesses

Established in 1619 in Virginia, it was the first representative assembly in the American colonies. Marked the beginning of self-government and colonial democracy.

How Spain interacted with native inhabitants

Tended to conquer and enslave the native inhabitants of the regions it colonized. Made great efforts to convert Native Americans to Catholicism. Spanish colonists were overwhelmingly male, and many had children with native women, leading to settlements populated largely by mestizos.

How France interacted with native inhabitants

Had significantly friendlier relations with indigenous tribes, tending to ally with them and adopt native practices. The French had little choice in this, however; French settlements were so sparsely populated that taking on the natives would have been very risky.

How the Netherlands interacted with native inhabitants

Attempted to build a great trading empire. Settlements soon fell to the English. One of the Dutch settlements was New Amsterdam, later New York City.

How England interacted with native inhabitants

Attempted to exclude Native Americans as much as possible. Intermixing was rare, and when English colonies grew to the point where conflict was inevitable, the English launched wars of extermination against the natives.

Puritans

Led a Protestant movement called Puritanism in England. Name is derived from its adherents’ desire to purify the Anglican church of Roman Catholic practices. English monarchs of the 17th century persecuted the Puritans, so they began to look for a new place to practice their faith.

Calvinists

Calvinists were followers of John Calvin, a Protestant reformer whose teachings emphasized predestination—the belief that God had already determined who would achieve salvation. Calvinism was a major influence on Puritanism and other Protestant movements. Calvinist beliefs shaped the religious and social structures of many American colonies, particularly New England. The emphasis on hard work, discipline, and self-governance contributed to the development of American political and economic values.

Separatists

Thought the Church of England was so incapable of being reformed that they had to abandon it, so they left England. First, they went to the Netherlands but ultimately decided to start fresh in the New World. In 1620, they set sail for Virginia, but their ship, the Mayflower, went off course and they landed in modern-day Massachusetts and settled in a place they called Plymouth. Also known as Pilgrims.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement by Pilgrims establishing a “body politic” and basic legal system for the Plymouth colony. Created a legal authority and assembly, but also asserted that the government’s power comes from the consent of the governed and not from God, as some monarchists known as Absolutists believe.

Squanto

Squanto (Tisquantum) was a Native American of the Patuxet tribe who acted as an interpreter and mediator between the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony and local Indigenous groups in the early 1600s. Squanto played a key role in the survival of the Pilgrims by teaching them agricultural techniques and helping establish alliances with the Wampanoag. His assistance was crucial to the first Thanksgiving and early colonial-Indigenous relations, though tensions later escalated.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

Larger and more powerful colony established by Congregationalists. Led by Governor John Winthrop, Massachusetts Bay developed along Puritan ideals. It was established as a theocratic society with a strong focus on religious conformity. The colony became a major center of Puritanism in New England, shaping early American values of self-governance through town meetings and the General Court. Its emphasis on religious discipline and community cohesion influenced future American political and social structures.

Congregationalists

Puritans who wanted to reform the Anglican church from within. Their arrival in the US started the Great Puritan Migration.

City upon a hill

Winthrop delivered the now-famous sermon, “A Model of Christion Charity,” urging the colonists to be a city upon a hill - a model for others to look up to, a moral example for the rest of the world.

Roger Williams

Roger Williams was a Puritan minister who founded Rhode Island in 1636 after being banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for advocating religious tolerance and the separation of church and state. Williams' beliefs laid the foundation for religious freedom in America. Rhode Island became a haven for dissenters and a model for religious pluralism, influencing later protections for religious liberty in the U.S. Constitution. He also promoted fair dealings with Native Americans, challenging colonial policies of land seizure.

Anne Hutchinson

Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan woman who challenged the religious and gender norms of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by holding meetings where she criticized ministers and promoted the idea that individuals could receive divine revelation without clergy. She was a strong proponent of antinomianism (the belief that faith and God’s grace, as opposed to observance of moral law and performance of good deeds, suffice to earn one’s place among the “elect”. She was tried for heresy and banished in 1638, later settling in Rhode Island. Hutchinson’s challenge to Puritan authority highlighted conflicts over religious interpretation and the role of women in society. Her banishment reflected the strict religious and social controls in Puritan New England, and her advocacy for personal faith influenced ideas of religious freedom and dissent in American history.

New England

New England was a colonial region in the northeastern part of North America, consisting of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. It was primarily settled by Puritan families in the early 1600s and was characterized by small farming communities, a mixed economy, and a focus on religion and education. New England played a key role in shaping American political and cultural traditions, including self-governance through town meetings, an emphasis on education (e.g., Harvard College in 1636), and early industrial and maritime trade. The region also saw tensions between colonists and Native Americans, leading to conflicts like King Philip’s War.

Chesapeake

The Chesapeake refers to the colonial region centered around the Chesapeake Bay, including the colonies of Virginia and Maryland. It was primarily settled by single male English colonists seeking economic opportunities, especially through tobacco cultivation. The Chesapeake became the heart of tobacco production in colonial America, relying heavily on indentured servants and, later, enslaved Africans. Its agricultural economy shaped the social structure, leading to the development of a plantation-based system with a large, elite planter class. This region also played a significant role in early American history, particularly in the development of slavery and the tensions leading to the American Revolution.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, adopted in 1639, was the first written constitution in America. It established a framework for self-government in the Connecticut Colony, creating a representative government with an elected governor and legislature. The Fundamental Orders are significant because they laid the groundwork for democratic governance in America, influencing later state constitutions and the U.S. Constitution. It is often considered a precursor to the modern idea of constitutional government and a reflection of the growing desire for political autonomy in the colonies.

Act of Toleration

The Act of Toleration, passed in 1649 in Maryland, was a law that granted religious freedom to all Christians, specifically protecting Catholics from persecution by Protestant settlers. It was one of the first legal protections for religious freedom in the English colonies. The Act of Toleration was significant because it marked an early effort at religious tolerance in the American colonies, setting a precedent for religious freedom that would later be enshrined in the U.S. Constitution. While it still limited freedom to only Christians, it represented a shift away from the religious persecution common in Europe.

Middle Colonies

The Middle Colonies consisted of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. These colonies were characterized by a diverse population, fertile land, and a mix of agricultural and commercial economies. They were known for their religious tolerance and ethnic diversity. The Middle Colonies played a pivotal role in shaping America's pluralistic society. Their mix of cultures, religious freedom, and economic prosperity contributed to the development of a more tolerant and dynamic social structure compared to other regions. The region also became a center of trade, contributing significantly to the economic growth of the colonies.

royal colony

A royal colony was a colony under the direct control of the British crown, as opposed to proprietary or self-governing colonies. The British king appointed a governor and council to oversee the colony’s administration.

Proprietary colony

A proprietary colony was a colony in which the British crown granted land and governing authority to one or more individuals (proprietors) who had the power to establish and govern the colony. Examples include Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. Proprietary colonies allowed for more local control and often offered more religious and political freedoms than royal colonies. The proprietors were responsible for setting up the colony's government, which contributed to the diversity of colonial political systems. These colonies also played a key role in attracting settlers, as proprietors often offered land and opportunities for religious tolerance. Most colonies, however, would eventually be turned into royal colonies by the revolution (excluding Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island).

Pequot War

The Pequot War (1636-1638) was a conflict between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of English colonists from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut, along with their Native American allies, such as the Mohegan and Narragansett. It was sparked by tensions over territorial disputes, trade, and English expansion. The Pequot War was one of the earliest and most violent conflicts between Native Americans and European settlers. It ended in the near destruction of the Pequot tribe, who were decimated by massacre and enslavement. The war established patterns of European violence and displacement of Indigenous people, contributing to the broader history of colonial-Native American relations in New England.

Decline of the Huron Confederacy

The decline of the Huron Confederacy occurred in the mid-1600s due to a combination of factors, including devastating outbreaks of European diseases (such as smallpox), prolonged warfare with the Iroquois Confederacy (especially during the Beaver Wars), and disruptions to their fur trade economy. The collapse of the Huron Confederacy marked a significant shift in the power dynamics of northeastern North America. With the Hurons weakened, the Iroquois gained dominance in the fur trade and expanded their territory, further influencing European alliances and conflicts in the region. The displacement of the Hurons also contributed to broader patterns of Native American migration and cultural transformation.

King Philip’s War

King Philip’s War (1675-1676) was a conflict between New England colonists and a coalition of Native American tribes led by Metacomet, the chief of the Wampanoag. The war was fueled by colonial expansion, tensions over land, and Native resistance to English rule. King Philip’s War was one of the deadliest conflicts in colonial American history, resulting in the destruction of several New England towns and the deaths of thousands of Native Americans and colonists. The war ended with Metacomet’s death and the near-total defeat of Native resistance in New England, leading to the expansion of English settlement and the further decline of Indigenous autonomy in the region.

Metacomet

Metacomet, also known as King Philip, was the chief of the Wampanoag tribe and the leader of Native resistance against English colonists during King Philip’s War. He sought to unite various Indigenous groups to push back against colonial expansion.

Praying towns

Praying towns were settlements established by Puritans in New England during the 17th century to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Indigenous inhabitants, known as "Praying Indians," were expected to adopt English customs and Christian religious practices. Praying towns reflected the colonial goal of assimilating Native Americans into English society, but they also disrupted Indigenous cultures and traditions. During King Philip’s War, many Praying Indians faced suspicion from both sides—some were attacked by colonists, while others were distrusted by Native resistance fighters. The decline of these towns after the war highlighted the broader challenges of colonial-Native relations.

Pueblo Revolt

The Pueblo Revolt (1680) was an uprising of Pueblo Native Americans in present-day New Mexico against Spanish colonial rule. Led by the Pueblo leader Popé, the revolt was driven by Spanish religious oppression, forced labor, and violence against Indigenous people. The Pueblo successfully expelled the Spanish from the region for over a decade. The Pueblo Revolt was one of the most successful Indigenous uprisings in North American history. It temporarily freed the Pueblos from Spanish control and forced the Spanish, upon their return in 1692, to adopt a more tolerant approach toward Indigenous religious and cultural practices. The revolt demonstrated Indigenous resistance to European colonization and shaped Spanish policies in the Southwest.

Bacon’s Rebellion

Bacon's Rebellion (1676) was an armed uprising in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon against the colonial government, headed by Governor William Berkeley. Bacon and his followers, frustrated by the lack of protection from Native American attacks and grievances over the government’s policies favoring the elite, marched on Jamestown and burned it to the ground. Bacon’s Rebellion highlighted the growing tensions between the colonial elite and poorer settlers, particularly over issues of land, class, and government representation. It led to changes in colonial policies, including the shift toward using African slaves instead of indentured servants, as elites sought to avoid further unrest among poorer white settlers. The rebellion also exposed the fragility of colonial rule and the challenges of maintaining control in a diverse and expanding colony. As a result, many disgruntled former indentured servants allied themselves with free Black people who also were disenfranchised. This alliance along class lines frightened many Southerners and led to the development of what would become Black codes after the Civil War. May also be seen as a precursor to the American Revolution, as colonists began to feel more political autonomy.

Middle Passage

The Middle Passage was the brutal sea voyage that carried enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade. The journey was infamous for its overcrowded, inhumane conditions, with many enslaved people dying from disease, malnutrition, and mistreatment. The Middle Passage was a key component of the triangular trade, connecting Africa, the Americas, and Europe. It played a central role in the growth of slavery in the Americas, particularly in the South, where it fueled the plantation economy. The horrors of the Middle Passage have become a symbol of the atrocities of the transatlantic slave trade and its long-lasting impact on African American communities.

Salutary neglect

Salutary neglect was a British policy in the 17th and early 18th centuries that allowed the American colonies to govern themselves with minimal interference from Britain, particularly in matters of trade and local governance. This policy was aimed at fostering economic prosperity by not strictly enforcing trade laws. Salutary neglect contributed to the development of self-governance in the colonies, as they had more freedom to create their own laws and economic practices. This fostered a sense of independence, which later played a significant role in the colonies' desire for autonomy and resistance to British control, eventually leading to the American Revolution.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism was an economic theory and practice dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century, which argued that a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and accumulating precious metals, such as gold and silver. It emphasized a favorable balance of trade and government intervention in the economy.

Navigation Acts

The Navigation Acts were a series of British laws, first enacted in 1651, that restricted colonial trade to ensure that it benefitted England. These laws required that certain goods (like tobacco and sugar) be shipped only to England or other English colonies, colonists should only buy from England. If something was imported and not from England, colonists would pay a tariff. The Navigation Acts were a key part of the mercantilist system, aiming to control colonial trade and strengthen England's economy. While they were designed to protect English shipping and trade, they angered colonists, who felt restricted in their economic activities and believed the laws were exploitative. This dissatisfaction contributed to growing tensions between the colonies and Britain, eventually leading to the American Revolution.

Tariff

A tariff is a tax or duty imposed by a government on imported or exported goods. Tariffs are often used to protect domestic industries by making imported goods more expensive and encouraging consumers to buy local products. Tariffs were a significant source of revenue for colonial governments and were often used as a tool for economic protectionism. In the context of colonial America, British-imposed tariffs on goods like paper, glass, and tea (e.g., the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts) led to widespread colonial protest, as they were seen as unjust taxes without representation, contributing to the tensions that sparked the American Revolution.

Stono Uprising

The Stono Uprising, also known as the Stono Rebellion, was a slave revolt that occurred in 1739 in the South Carolina colony. Led by a group of enslaved Africans, the rebellion began near the Stono River, where the slaves seized weapons, killed several colonists, and attempted to escape to Spanish Florida, which offered freedom to runaway slaves. The Stono Uprising was the largest slave revolt in colonial American history and led to harsher laws regarding slavery, such as the Negro Act of 1740 in South Carolina, which tightened restrictions on enslaved people’s movements, education, and assembly. The rebellion highlighted the deep tensions between enslaved Africans and their captors and foreshadowed the growing resistance to slavery in the American colonies.

Salem Witch Trials

The Salem Witch Trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between 1692 and 1693. The trials were fueled by mass hysteria, religious fervor, and political tensions, leading to the execution of 20 people, mostly women, and the imprisonment of many others. The Salem Witch Trials are significant because they reflect the dangers of scapegoating, mass hysteria, and the intersection of religion and justice. The trials exposed the flaws in the legal and social systems of the time and led to a more cautious approach to witchcraft accusations in later colonial America. The events also contributed to growing skepticism toward theocratic governance and the use of superstition in legal matters.

Dominion of New England

The Dominion of New England (1686-1689) was a consolidation of several New England colonies (including Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire) into a single royal province by King James II. The goal was to streamline administration and increase royal control, with a governor-general, Sir Edmund Andros, appointed to oversee the region. The Dominion of New England represented an attempt by the British crown to centralize control over the colonies, reducing local autonomy. The imposition of direct royal rule and the revocation of colonial charters led to widespread resentment. The Dominion was short-lived, collapsing after the Glorious Revolution in England (1688), which saw James II ousted from the throne, and local colonial governments were restored. This event contributed to the growing sense of independence in the American colonies.

Halfway Covenant

The Halfway Covenant, adopted in 1662, was a religious compromise in Puritan New England that allowed the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized and have political rights, even if they had not yet experienced a personal conversion.Those who had not experienced God’s grace were not allowed to vote. This was done to maintain church membership in the face of declining religious participation. The Halfway Covenant marked a shift in the Puritan approach to religious participation, reflecting a growing concern over the weakening of the church’s influence in society. It allowed for greater inclusion in the Puritan community, but also highlighted the tension between maintaining strict religious purity and adapting to the changing social and cultural landscape. This compromise foreshadowed future religious and social shifts in colonial America.

Revivalism

Revivalism refers to the religious movement in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in colonial and early America, that aimed to renew and intensify religious fervor. This movement often involved large gatherings, emotional preaching, and a focus on personal salvation and religious experience. Key examples include the Great Awakening. Revivalism played a central role in shaping American religious and social life. The Great Awakening was a major religious revival in the 1730s and 1740s. Revivalism contributed to the spread of democratic ideals and had long-lasting effects on American culture, including the development of religious pluralism and the questioning of traditional authority.

The Great Awakening

The Great Awakening, a major religious revival in the 1730s and 1740s, fostered the growth of Protestant denominations, emphasized individual spiritual experiences, and promoted egalitarian ideas, undermining traditional church hierarchies

Jonathan Edwards

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was a prominent Congregationalist preacher during the First Great Awakening. He is best known for his fire-and-brimstone sermons, such as "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," which emphasized human sinfulness and the necessity of personal salvation through faith in Christ. Edwards was a key figure in the First Great Awakening, a religious revival that had a profound impact on American religious life. His sermons and writings helped promote a more emotional, personal approach to Christianity, which contrasted with the more formal, intellectual traditions of earlier colonial churches. Edwards’ teachings contributed to the spread of evangelical Protestantism in America and influenced the development of American religious and social values, including individualism and personal spiritual experience.

George Whitefield

George Whitefield (1714-1770) was a Methodist preacher and a central figure in the First Great Awakening. Known for his powerful, emotional sermons, he traveled extensively throughout the American colonies, preaching to large crowds and promoting evangelical Christianity. Whitefield’s preaching style and message had a major impact on American religious life. He helped spark widespread religious revivals, encouraging a more personal, emotional relationship with God. His ability to draw massive crowds and inspire individuals to seek salvation played a key role in shaping the growth of evangelical Protestantism in America. Whitefield’s influence also helped foster a sense of shared religious identity across the colonies, contributing to the development of a distinctly American Christianity.