SOC: Cultures and Subcultures

Culture

The shared beliefs, values, behaviors, and material objects that together form a people's way of life.

Material Culture

The physical objects or artifacts created and used by a culture (e.g., food, clothing, architecture).

Non-Material Culture

The ideas, beliefs, values, and norms that shape how people live (e.g., language, symbols, customs).

Cultural Universals

Common elements or institutions found in all human societies (e.g., family, language, religion).

Cultural Transmission

The process of passing cultural beliefs, norms, and values from one generation to the next.

Cultural Diffusion

The spread of cultural traits, ideas, or products from one culture to another.

Cultural Integration

The way different elements of culture fit together into a cohesive whole.

Cultural Lag

When some parts of culture (usually non-material) change more slowly than others (e.g., laws catching up to technology).

Symbol

Anything that carries a specific meaning recognized by people who share a culture (e.g., stop sign, flag, handshake).

Language

A system of symbols (spoken, written, or non-verbal) that allows people to communicate and transmit culture.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

The theory that language shapes how people perceive and experience the world.

Gestures

Movements of the body that carry meaning within a culture.

Internet/Online Culture

Modern communication systems that develop unique linguistic patterns ("because science," memes, emojis).

Values

Shared cultural standards that people use to decide what is good, desirable, or proper.

Beliefs

Specific ideas that people hold to be true about the world (e.g., "everyone should vote").

Ideology

A set of beliefs that justify or explain social arrangements and practices.

Norms

Rules and expectations that guide the behavior of members of a society ("what's normal").

Social Control

Mechanisms used to encourage conformity to cultural norms.

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments for following or violating norms (positive or negative).

Folkways

Informal, everyday norms that are not strictly enforced (e.g., manners, greetings).

Mores (Pronounced MOR-ays)

Strongly held moral norms that have moral significance and are often encoded in laws.

Taboos

Norms that are so strongly held they provoke disgust or horror when violated (e.g., cannibalism, incest).

Laws

Formally defined norms enforced by governments.

High Culture

Cultural patterns associated with a society's elite (e.g., opera, fine art).

Low / Popular Culture

Cultural products and practices popular among the general population (e.g., pop music, reality TV).

Mainstream Culture

The dominant cultural patterns and values that align with a society's norms.

Subculture

A cultural group that exists within a larger culture but has distinct values, norms, and material culture (e.g., hipsters, gamers).

Counterculture

A cultural group whose values and norms directly oppose the mainstream (e.g., 1960s hippie movement).

Multculturalism

Recognizing and valuing cultural diversity while promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture based on the standards of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism

Evaluating a culture by its own standards rather than judging it by another culture's norms.

Eurocentrism

A worldview centered on Western or European cultural patterns.

Afrocentrism

A perspective that re-centers cultural analysis on the experiences and contributions of Africans and African Americans.

Melting Pot

The idea that different cultures blend into a single, unified national culture.

Salad Bowl / Mosaic

A metaphor for multicultural societies where distinct cultures coexist while maintaining unique identities.

Cultural Hegemony

The dominance of one group's culture and ideology over others (often linked to power and inequality).

Globalization

Increasing worldwide interconnectedness leading to cultural blending and exchange.

Americanization / Westernization

The global spread of American or Western cultural traits (e.g., McDonald's, Hollywood films).

Cultural Imperialism

When one culture's media or values dominate and influence another culture's traditions (e.g., U.S. pop culture abroad).

Individualism vs. Collectivism

A culture's focus on personal independence vs. group harmony

Power Distance

A culture's acceptance of inequality in power and authority

Masculinity vs. Feminity

A culture's emphasis on competition and assertiveness vs. cooperation and care

Uncertainty Avoidance

A culture's tolerance for ambiguity and change

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation

A culture's sense of future planning vs. respect for tradition and the past

Indulgence vs. Restraint

A culture's sense of freedom to enjoy life vs. strict social control and duty

Individualism

Cultural focus on independence, personal goals, competition, and uniqueness (e.g., U.S., Western Europe).

Collectivism

Cultural focus on group harmony, interdependence, cooperation, and family loyalty (e.g., China, Japan, South Korea).

Cultural Identity

A person's sense of belonging to a cultural group.

Normative Behavior

Behavior that fits cultural expectations.

Cultural Identity Politics (Culture War)

Political movements based on shared cultural traits or experiences.