Buddhism

Theravada Buddhism

• Theravada - ‘doctrine of the elders’

• They believe that they are closest to the original teachings. The teachings are tools to tell us see the truth of the world.

Mahayana Buddhism

• Mahayana - ‘great vehicle’, aka the best way to get to enlightenment

• All of us have Buddha-nature and the ability to reach nibbana

• As the ‘enlightened one’ the Buddha had to use upaya to communicate and help others understand the dharma

Why the Buddha has authority for Theravada Buddhists as the ‘enlightened one’

• Has had many past lives and can remember them giving him wisdom

• Has achieved enlightenment

• The only one to achieve enlightenment on his own

• His teachings are the way to achieve enlightenment

• Ultimate role model for Theravada Buddhists

• Leader of the tradition and the sangha

Importance of Buddhas luxury life

• Siddhartha was a special human being

• He had not truly experienced the ordinary scale of suffering

• His life of luxury did not make him happy

The four sights

• An old man

• A sick man

• A corpse

• A holy man

  • First three sights disturbed him enormously as he realised that old age, sickness, and death were an inescapable reality of life for all living beings

  • The 4th sight inspired him due to the apparent calm and peace of the holy man. Siddhartha wanted to be like him - a truth seeker. It was a sign that there was a way out of the suffering he had observed.

Extreme asceticism

• After leaving the palace, siddhartha lived as an ascetic for 6 years where he denied himself all the things he craved and practiced extreme self discipline

• He became very thin and weak

• His medications gave him feelings of bliss but did not offer him a permanent solution to the problem of suffering

• Siddhartha abandoned this extreme practice and went to find a ‘middle way’ between luxury and hardship after hearing a man tell his son how to string a musical instrument: if you fasten the strings too tightly they will snap and prevent you playing and if you string them too loosely they will not produce any sound. This was a metaphor for Siddharthas own experiences of two extremes that did not benefit him.

• His ascetic friends abandoned him

Importance of siddharthas extreme asceticism

• Siddhartha worked hard in his ascetic practice to achieve enlightenment, but this only brought him dissatisfaction and he had to let go to find a better way. This is reflected in the Dhamma - Buddhists try to see the way things really are and when something is not working, holding on to it will only lead to more dissatisfaction. To stop dukkha, you need to stop craving

• Siddhartha's experience of two extremes led him to the 'middle way' - a life of focus and meditation without the deprivation. This is also the path of Buddhists today.

• During his time as an ascetic Siddhartha learnt to meditate (something he had done before but had not known what it was). This would become the key to achieving enlightenment.

Meditation and temptation by Mara

• Siddhartha turned to meditation and sat under a peepul tree and vowed to to stay there until he achieved enlightenment, “I will not rise from this spot until I am enlightened”

• Buddha ended up sat under the tree for one day and one night before achieving his enlightenment

• Mara tried to prevent Siddhartha from achieving his goal through temptation and intimidation by sending his daughters to seduce him, sending armies to attack him, offering his kingdom to Siddhartha to rule over, personally attacking him. However Siddhartha ignored maras efforts and remained focused on his medication.

Importance of Siddhartha resisting temptation

• Mara is the personification of all negative emotions and siddharthas battle with Mara symbolises the fight against them. To achieve his goal, Siddhartha has to reject temptation and focus on what he wants to achieve.

• Buddhists today practice daily meditation to gain wisdom and insight and focus on their goal

Siddharthas path to enlightenment

• He recalled his past lives. He saw himself though his numerous births, lives, deaths and rebirths. He could see how his previous lives had led him to this life and his readiness to achieve enlightenment.

• He understood that nothing is permanent and that the cycle of samsara applies to all living things. He realised that all beings were reborn according to their karma and there is not fixed self that continuous to exist.

• He discovered the law of 'dependent arising’, that the cause of suffering is desire (craving) and that overcoming desire will also end suffering (Four Noble Truths).

• At the end of the 3rd watch of the night, Siddhartha attained nibbana; he no longer felt greed, hatred nor ignorance (Three Poisons) and felt a sense of calm and happiness. He had become an enlightened being, 'the fully awakened one', 'the Buddha'.

Importance of Siddharthas path to enlightenment

• It took many lives for the Buddha to achieve enlightenment

• Like the Buddha, other people can become enlightened because it is something achieved through the power of the human mind

• Siddharthas experience formed the basis of his teaching - the dharma

After enlightenment

• The Buddha hesitated to teach

• Mara tried to tempt him to keep what he had discovered to himself but a deva asked him to teach others out of compassion

• His five ascetic friends who had previously considered him a failure and abandoned him became his first students and the first to become enlightened too

• The Buddha then went on to teach anyone who wanted to become enlightened

Importance of after enlightenment

• The deva represents the universe and he encourages the Buddha to teach the dhamma to human beings so they can all be released from suffering

• The lotus flower is the symbol of Buddhism. It represents the human mind rising from the mud (unenlightened life) to the surface where it can bloom (enlightenment).

• The Buddha taught anyone who wanted to hear the Dhamma, regardless of gender, age or religion. The path to enlightenment is for everyone.

• The Buddha is a role model for Buddhists today. Looking at his image reminds Buddhists every day that he achieved enlightenment by his own efforts and that they can do the same by following his teachings.

Theravada beliefs about the death of the Buddha

• Upon enlightenment Buddha was transformed into something more than an ordinary human being and achieved a state called nirvana

• Buddha died a human death and achieved a state called parinivarna

The parable of the burning house

A man comes home to find his house in flames while his children play happily inside. After failing to get them to leave the house he promises them pretty carts outside drawn by deer, goats, and bullocks. The children leave the house and the father makes good on his promise by finding the children a beautiful cart beyond their imagination.

Message of the parable of the burning house

• The Parable of the Burning House suggests that the Buddha was like a father teaching immature children (his followers) how to escape a burning house (world of suffering). There are several things this may mean, according to Mahayana Buddhists:

  • The promises Buddha made (e.g. Nirvana) may not reflect what is actually waiting for us

  • The Buddha’s original followers were spiritually immature and the teachings in the Pali Canon are therefore tailored to a less intelligent audience

  • The life of the Buddha itself could be an example of skilful means – one example is that the Buddha did not really go to Parinirvana but continues to look out for suffering beings

Carts representation in the parable of the burning house

• Goat - hearer or disciple

• Deer - An individual who independently achieves liberation without the aid of teachers and without teaching others to do the same

• Bullock - Bodhissatva who is a person who is on the path towards bodhi or buddhahood and teaches others to do the same

Evidence Buddha is a human

• Born to ordinary beings

• Had to make mistakes in order to figure out the right way to life

• Lived a mortal life and died an ordinary death

• Did not claim to be a god

Evidence Buddha is not a human

• Spoke directly after his birth

• Even as an ascetic achieved levels of concentration that amazed his own teachers

• Managed to free himself from the cycle of rebirth

• Performed a number of miracles that demonstrated supernatural powers

The dharma wheel

The Buddha is known as the wheel-turner: he sets a new cycle of teachings in motion and in consequence changes the course of destiny

The three jewels

• The Buddha - the historical Buddha, cosmic Buddhas or inner Buddha nature

• The dharma - the teachings of the Buddha, the way, the path

• The sangha - the Buddhist community

All Buddhists take refuge in the three jewels: “I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge in the dharma. I take refuge in the sangha.”

The three poisons

The root cause of human suffering, usually seen in the centre of ‘the wheel of life’ art:

• Moha - delusion, confusion

• Raga - greed, sensual attachment

• Dvesha - aversion, ill will

The three wholesome factors

• Prajna - wisdom

• Dana - generosity

• Metta - loving kindness

The lotus

Grows in the filth of muddy water (the world) yet flowers towards the heavens: the lotus symbolises the spiritual path and the capacity for all beings to reach nibbana

The conch

Symbolises the deep, far reaching and melodious sound of the Buddhas teachings: it awakens all who hear it from the slumber of ignorance

The endless knot

Symbolises the nature of reality where everything is interrelated and only exists as part of an endless web of karma and its effect

The pali canon

‘Canon’ means a set of texts that are accepted as sacred to a particular group. ‘Pali’ is the Ancient Indian language in which Buddhist texts are written. The Pali Canon is therefore the set of scriptures written in Pali and recognised by Theravada Buddhists as being fully authoritative

The development of the pali canon

• The Buddha did not write his teachings down so they were only agreed after his death when the Sangha met to agree which teachings to preserve.

• For a long time, the teachings were passed on orally and recited regularly.

• During the Fourth Buddhist Council there was a decision to create written copies as a result of a famine that was killing Buddhist monks. These were written on palm leaves and stored in three pitakas (baskets), hence the name tripitaka that is often given to the Pali Canon

Vinaya Pitaka - basket of discipline

• Contains the rules of behaviour that bikkhus and bikkhunis are supposed to keep

• Still some disagreement between schools on whether certain rules are historically accurate or a later addition, eg the garudhammas

• Rules known as patimokkha or pratimoksha

• There are 227 for men and 311 for women

• Examples include an outline of the offences which can result in expulsion from the sangha

The use of the Vinaya pitaka (basket of discipline)

• In worship: ordination ceremonies, reciting the rules

• In daily life: relies on its rules and guidelines in order to maintain a stable and fair community, conflict resolution

Sutta pitaka - basket of discourse

• Contains the life and teachings of the Buddha

• Broken down into five collections or ‘nikayas’

• Examples include the aggana sutta and the kalama sutra

The use of the sutta pitaka (basket of discipline)

• In worship: useful in engaging lay people, chanting and reciting, meditation

• In daily life: mindfulness, decision making

Abhidamma pitaka - basket of higher doctrine

• Contains detailed scholarly analysis of the Buddhas rules and teachings from the other two baskets, including debates and controversies

• Seen as the ultimate truth

• Concerned with psychology, philosophy, the nature of reality, the self, etc.

• Examples include the teaching of anatta and the Five Skandhas

The use of the abhidhamma pitaka (basket of higher doctrine)

• In worship: ritual chanting, protection chanting

• In daily life: understanding karma, analysing mental factors

Accuracy of pali canon for Buddhists

• For Theravada Buddhists, the Pali Canon has full authority as the only true record of the Buddha’s teachings. The careful effort to preserve its accuracy across multiple Buddhist councils ensures it is an authentic record of the Buddha’s life.

• For Mahayana Buddhists, the Pali Canon has partial authority. It is an example of Upaya (skilful means): it is a set of teachings given to a group of people who were not intellectually advanced enough to understand higher ideas. Mahayana Buddhists use the Pali Canon but support with Mahayana Sutras such as the Lotus Sutra which contain additional teachings such as Buddhanature and Sunyata.

• For Nichiren Buddhists, the Lotus Sutra is the only true Sutra and the Pali Canon is not necessary for enlightenment; it may even be a distraction.

• For Zen Buddhists, meditation is more important than scripture as there is only so much that can be conveyed through language.

Relevance of Pali canon for Buddhists

• This debate is most significant for Theravada Buddhists who derive most of their teachings and ways of life from the Pali Canon. However, it is important for all Buddhists to consider whether the Canon is authoritative or not.

• The accuracy of the Pali Canon may also be challenged due to the nearly five hundred years it was transmitted through the spoken word, leading to potential corruption or distortion of the original teachings. Secular Buddhists such as Stephen Batchelor have argued that the early Sangha may have added many more traditional Indian views that Buddha himself would have rejected.

The raft parable

• A man travelling along a path came to a great expanse of water

• He gathered grass, twigs and branches and tied them all together to make a simple raft

• Relying on the raft to keep him afloat, the man paddled with his hands and feet and reached the safety of the other shore

• Would he drag the raft along with him or leave it behind? He would leave it, the Buddha said

• The Buddha explained that the dharma is like a raft. It is useful for crossing over but not holding onto

Kalama sutra

• The Buddha gives advice to a group of monks about how to tell the difference between truth and falsehood.

• Rather than trusting something because it comes from an authority, Buddha suggests that we only believe things on the basis that they make sense to us, lead to happiness, and do not harm others

• Go upon: praised by the wise, leads to benefit and happiness

• Do not go upon: rumour, tradition, scripture, axiom, surmise, special reasoning, the consideration the monk is my teacher

The four noble truths

1. “Life is suffering”, dukkha - existence of suffering.

2. The cause of suffering is craving or thirst, samudaya - origin of suffering

3. Hope for a cure, destruction of suffering, nirodha - end of suffering

4. Treatment for our illness, magga - the way to the end of suffering

Story of Devattada

• Devadatta was cousin and bother in law of the Buddha. As his ill will and jealousy towards the Buddha increased, he became the greatest personal enemy of the Buddha.

• One day devattada approached the Buddha and asked him to make him the leader of sangha. Since he was not capable or worthy enough, the Buddha turned down this request. Devattada became very angry as a result and vowed to take revenge on the Buddha.

• First attempt: he hired a man to kill the Buddha but when the man came close to the Buddha, he became frightened and took refuge in the Buddha

• Second attempt: devadatta climbed to the peak on the vultures rock and hurled a huge stone at the Buddha. On its way down the rock struck another rock and a splinter flew and wounded the Buddhas foot

• Third attempt: he made the fierce man killer elephant drunk with liquor. As the elephant came close, the Buddha radiated his loving kindness towards the elephant and it stopped

• New plan: planned to split the sangha community with the help of five hundred misled monks. After this evil days fell on devadatta and he fell very ill at the failure of his plans

• Before his death he sincerely regretted his actions and wanted to see the Buddha before he died but karma prevented him from doing so. He grew desperately ill on the way to see the Buddha and died before he could see him.

Story of Kiso Gotami

• Her son fell and died one day

• In her sorrow she took the dead body on her hip and roamed the town, going from door to door asking for medicine

• People mocked her, then a certain wise man told her 'good woman, go to the Buddha, the enlightened one, and ask him for medicine for your child'

• When the master was teaching nearby, she went where he was staying and said: 'oh lord, give me medicine for my child', the master replied: 'go to town, and beg a mustard seed in a house where no man has died'

• At the first house she asked: 'I would like a mustard seed as medicine for my child. If in this house no one has died, please give me a mustard seed. The answer was: 'who knows how many people have died here'

• She went onto the next house, and the next, never getting what she asked

• Her sorrow had subsided a bit, and she came back to her right mind. She thought: 'all over this town it must be like this. The Buddha must have known this and in his wisdom made me see.'

• She rejoiced and buried the body out in a field

Story of Angulimala

• The Buddha goes to a nearby village and gets warned of angulimala, the robber who wears a necklace of fingers

• As angulimala runs towards the Buddha, he was unable to catch up with him

• The Buddha refers to angulimala as his friend, which he is very surprised at because he hadn’t been called someone’s friend in a long time

• Angulimala changes his life and joins the Buddha

Buddhism is pessimistic arguments

• The four noble truths show that Buddhists think all life is suffering

• The goal of life for Buddhists is to escape the cycle of samsara rather than to live a fulfilling life

• Buddhists believe that all material goals are craving which could be seen as pessimistic, particularly by a western culture

Buddhism isn’t pessimistic argument

• The four noble truths show that Buddhists believe that there is an end to suffering, which is optimistic

• Buddhism may be correct about the cause of suffering - there is a difference between pessimistic and realistic - Buddhism recognises that a lot of optimism is simply ignorance

• By embracing a Buddhist lifestyle it is possible to be more grateful, balanced, and unaffected by negative emotion

Theravada concepts of the Buddha - ultimate reality

• Theravada Buddhists recognise the historical person of the Buddha

• There are 28 Buddhas altogether and there is never more than one alive in the world at a time

• Buddha is inaccessible as he has now entered Parinirvana

• The goal of Buddhahood is essentially unobtainable but it is possible to become close to the Buddha by becoming an arhat (perfected saint)

Mahayana concepts of the Buddha - ultimate reality

• Mahayana Buddhists take Buddha to be essentially a divine being

• There are an infinite number of Buddhas occupying an infinite number of worlds

• Buddha can be reached as he did not enter Parinirvana; Buddhists may have direct religious experiences of him

• The goal of Buddhahood is achievable, for men and women

• Mahayana Buddhists believe in the Trikaya (three bodies) doctrine, an attempt to make sense of how the Buddha can be simultaneously human and divine

The body of absolute truth: dharmakaya

• Refers to the enlightened mind, the complete realisation of the truth of all things. It is the collection of qualities which go to make up the Buddha nature.

• It is present in embryonic form in all beings

The body of enjoyment: sambhogakaya

• Refers to the glorious, heavenly Buddhas described in the Mahayana sutras. These are wonderful beings with many powers who live in their own Buddha lands. Buddhas or bodhisatvas may choose to remain in sambhogakaya form out of compassion, in order to remain accessible to suffering beings.

• It is said that being reborn in the pure land makes achieving enlightenment easier, so those struggling to do so on earth may focus on chanting in order to achieve this favourable rebirth. The pure land is known as sukhavati.

The body of manifestation/ transformation: nirmanakaya

• Refers to the historical Buddha manifested in earthly form.

• The nirmanakaya body is the physical body which the Buddha uses to teach the dharma to human beings.

• According to Mahayana perspective, Buddha was already enlightened before he was born as siddhartha and his decision to take physical, human form was a voluntary one.

Anicca

• The Buddha: “all conditioned things are impermanent”

• Grasping/craving towards impermanent things is a form of Dukkha. The Four Noble Truths tell us that craving is the cause of suffering. Therefore accepting impermanence is crucial for enlightenment.

• In order to gain ‘wisdom’ we need to understand and accept impermanence

• We need to remove attachments to impermanent things and focus our attention on the goal of nibbana - the only thing that is permanent

• We have a tendency to grasp at good experiences so our ignorance of the truth of anicca makes us suffer. This keeps us trapped in samsara. If we fully realise anicca and Anaya we can transcend samsara.

Importance of understanding anicca

• It is one of the Three Universal Marks; if we do not understand it we will not achieve enlightenment

• Attachment to impermanent things is a cause of suffering (viparinama-dukkha), so we will suffer if we do not realise anicca

Mahayana doctrine of emptiness - sunyata

• Developed by the monk Nagarjuna

• Evolved from the teaching of anicca found in Theravada Buddhism: the idea that everything is impermanent and therefore lacks its own essence

• Mahayana Buddhists take this further by saying that everything lacks essence and so anatta is true of all living things - everything is ‘empty of its own essence’

• Things exist but nothing exists independently from anything else

• Sunyata is not embracing nihilism or eternalism so in fact sees itself as a middle way

• Nirvana and Samsara are both empty as they take part in each other’s definitions

Why Theravada Buddhists reject sunyata

• They believe it does not come from the Buddha, as they treat the Pali Canon (original teachings) as complete

• They believe it destroys the Dharma by reducing sacred concepts (e.g. Buddha, Nirvana) to ‘empty’ and therefore meaningless

Nirvana

• Nirvana is the end of suffering and is achieved by realising the true nature of the self. It literally translates as ‘blowing out’ (the blowing out of the Three Fires/Poisons).

• Buddha does not describe Nirvana in scripture but instead stresses that it is indescribable and beyond understandings

80th dilemma of the questions of king milinda - Nagasena's analogies of nirvana

• Nirvana is like the Lotus Flower, unstained by defilements

• Nirvana is like cool water, cooling passions and cravings

• Nirvana is like medicine, ending torment and sickness

• Nirvana is like space, an infinite and undying path

• Nirvana is like the wishing jewel, granting all desire

• Nirvana is like a mountain peak, lofty and inaccessible to the passions

• Nirvana is like red sandalwood, hard to get and praised by goo dmen

• Nirvana is like ghee, sweet and with the taste of freedom

Strengths of Nagasena’s descriptions of nirvana

• It uses Upaya to reach its audience and can be adapted for a new audience

• it identifies some key features of Nirvana which can be compared to things we understand

• it makes Nirvana look appealing and therefore motivates us to aim for it

• By refusing to get caught up in describing Nirvana, Buddha is able to focus on what is really important (ending dukkha)

Weaknesses of Nagasena’s descriptions of nirvana

• Its use of Upaya means that it does not entirely make sense to people outside of King Milinda's social context

• it risks misleading us about Nirvana if we take it too literally

• it makes Nirvana too appealing and therefore creates craving

Theravada goal of life

Become an arhat (perfected saint):

• An arhat has purified his mind of the three poisons and all attachments

• There are four stages to becoming an arhat: stream-enterer, once-returner, non- returner, and full arhat

• The arhat ideal is based on the importance of wisdom

Mahayana goal of life

Become a Bodhisattva (enlightened being on Earth):

• Mahayana Buddhists should take the Bodhisattva Vow: a vow to save all sentient beings from suffering before pursuing their own Nirvana

• The bodhisattva ideal is based on the importance of compassion

• Humans can attain full Buddhahood

• Many Buddhists use upaya to recognise that some people will not achieve enlightenment in one lifetime so focus on helping them to a better rebirth.

Anatta

• Anatta is one of the Three Universal Marks.

• Instead of a self we are made up of five skandhas (‘heaps’ or ‘aggregates’). These are aspects of being that are constantly changing and none of them gives us a ‘self’.

• Understanding the skandhas helps us to realise the truth of anatta and achieve enlightenment.

The five skandhas

These are aspects of being that are constantly changing and none of them gives us a ‘self’. Understanding the skandhas helps us to realise the truth of anatta and achieve enlightenment.

1. Matter

2. Sensations

3. Perceptions

4. Mental formations

5. Consciousness

Questions of King Milinda - Nagasena’s chariot analogy

• “is the axle the chariot?... Is it then the wheels, or the framework, or the flag-staff, or the yoke, or the reins, or the goad-stick?”. There is no “chariot” separate from the parts.

• In the same way, Nagasena says, you can list all your body parts but not find a self anywhere. He explains that we use words like “chariot” and “Nagasena” as a form of conventional truth: they help us to describe the world efficiently, but they do not reflect the ultimate truth (what is actually the case).

Six realms of rebirth

1. Human realm - most fortunate state, not suffering as heavily as those in the other realms, yet are not in lengthy bliss like the gods, humans have the best chance of enlightenment

2. Gods realm - the gods, devas live in a state of bliss in the realm of heaven

3. Angry gods - experience great pleasure, but also jealousy and hate towards the devas

4. Hungry ghosts - trapped by their overattachment to the world, in the grip of their unfulfilled desires, symbolised by huge bellies and tiny mouths that can never satisfy their appetites

5. Animals - lack the necessary awareness to become enlightened

6. Hell - at the bottom of the Tibetan wheel of life, people are horribly tortured until their bad karma is worked off

Dukkha - dukkha

The suffering of suffering, physical and emotional discomfort and pain all humans experience in their lives

Viparinama - dukkha

Suffering of change, suffering that arises from an inability to accept change

Sankhara - dukkha

Suffering of existence, unsatisfactoriness of existence, caused simply by existence

Types of craving

• Kama-tanha is craving pleasures of the senses, wealth or power

• Bhava-tanha is craving for a fixed identity or existence and not accepting that life is impermanent

• Vibhava-tanha is craving to avoid pain and suffering, or to avoid the reality of rebirth

The five hindrances

• Ill will - boiling water

• Sloth and torpor - water with slimy moss

• Restlessness and remorse - water ruffled with wind

• Doubt - water in a dark place

• Sensory desire - coloured water

The eightfold path

• Right view

• Right intention

• Right speech

• Right action

• Right livelihood

• Right effort

• Right concentration

• Right mindfulness

• Right view

Theravada views on nibbana/ enlightenment

• Bodhi is associated with the perfection of insight into the four noble truths, which brings about the cessation of dukkha

• Nibbana is the “blowing out” of disturbing emotions

• Enlightenment is sometimes interpreted in terms of knowledge and insight. To be enlightened is to have full:

  • Insight into past lives

  • Insight into the workings of karma and reincarnation

  • Insight into the four noble truths

Mahayana views on nibbana/ enlightenment

• Nibbana associated with the perfection of wisdom - sunyata. Fully understanding the nature of this emptiness is nibbana.

• Knowledge and insight into one’s own true nature - Buddhanature - understanding of the true self

• ‘The enlightened mind’ is not something you should strive for and attain, it is an inherent aspect of all minds that is waiting to be discovered

Theravada - four stages to becoming an arhat

Stream enterer (sotapanna) is free from:

• Identity view

• Attachment to rites and rituals

• Doubt about the teachings

Once returner ( sakadagami) has greatly attenuated:

• Sensual desire

• Ill will

Non returner (anagami) is free from:

• Sensual desire

• Ill will

Arahant is free from:

• Craving for prosperity in material world

• Craving for existence in ideal world

• Conceit

• Restlessness

• Ignorance

Different interpretations of samsara

• Literal - Samsara as described as samsara should be taken at face value e.g. hell is an actual place, the gods really live long lives, Hungry Ghosts really have long necks and breathe fire

• Psychological - Samsara is a way of understanding our everyday psychological experiences as individuals e.g. Hell is the psychological state of depression, rebirth represents the ability to change our perspectives through mindfulness

• Metaphorical - Samsara is a metaphor for the real world, in which the realms represent social or economic groups, e.g. Hell is the prison system, the gods are the rich, Hungry Ghosts are addicts/homeless

Mahayana six perfections

• Perfection of generosity (Dana)

• Perfection of morality (sila)

• Perfection of renunciation

• Perfection of discerning wisdom (prajna)

• Perfection of energy (virya)

• Perfection of patience (ksanti)

• The Six Perfections are essential to being an effective Bodhisattva. Focusing on improving ourselves in this way also allows us to access our Buddhanature more effectively.

Kusala

Actions that are seen as healthy, skilful or wholesome

Akusala

Actions that are seen as unhealthy, unskillful or unwholesome

Evidence that intention is important in Buddhist morality

• It is a step on the Eightfold Path (Right Intention)

• Buddhists believe that intention affects the karma we generate

• No intention or a bad intention will lead to bad choices

• Intention more important to Mahayana Buddhists

Evidence that intention is not important in Buddhist morality

• Actions can harm people, intentions cannot

• Karma means ‘action’

• Action is more important to Theravada Buddhists (lots more rules about actions)

• Good actions create habits which shapes intentions

Five precepts

• Abstain from taking the life of beings - ahimsa

• Abstain from taking things not given

• Avoid sensual misconduct

• Abstain from false speech

• Abstain from substances which cause intoxication and heedlessness

The additional precepts

• To abstain from taking food at inappropriate times

• To abstain from dancing, singing, music and entertainments as wells refraining from the use of perfumes, ornaments and other items used to adorn or beautify the person

• To undertake the training to abstain from using high or luxurious beds

Ahimsa applied to weapons of mass destruction

• WMDs totally inexcusable due to the scale of suffering and bad karma - there is always a less destructive option

• Some Buddhists may justify the use of WMDs as a deterrent however most would believe that suffering will only end once we show loving-kindness by reaching full disarmament

• WMDs particularly bad due to the harm to animal life - even during testing

Ahimsa applied to the embryo and unborn child

• Generally see abortion as wrong but may make exceptions for life of the mother (there will be harm in either case so ahimsa means minimising harm).

• It may be more skilful to save the life of the mother (who is closer to achieving enlightenment) than the baby

• Buddhist positions on embryo research may also be complex: on the one hand there will be harm to the embryos, which are alive; on the other hand, if there is the potential to cure disease, this would be seen as reducing Dukkha.

• Japanese Buddhists allow abortion but follow it with a ritual (Mizuko Kuyo) to relieve the parents of their bad karma and guide the child to a safe rebirth

Ahimsa applied to the use of animals

• Many uses of animals are not kusala - exploitation of animals is wrong as ahimsa applies to them as well as humans

• May still be considered worse to harm a human due to their greater karmic merit. However lots of Buddhist scripture (e.g. Hungry Tigress) show that it is noble to die for animals too.

• Most Buddhists are vegetarian and view working in the meat industry as against Right Livelihood (e.g. Cruel Butcher)

The Dalai Lama

• Title given to the leader of the gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism

• Believed to be a reincarnation of avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion

• Avalokitesvara had promised the Buddha that he would, over centuries, protect and care for the Tibetan people

• They believe that rather than destructive karma (which causes ordinary rebirths), it is the boundless compassion of Avalokitesvara that keeps him in Samsara.

• New Dalai Lamas can be recognised using a variety of methods: past life memories, identifying possessions belonging to the previous Dalai Lama, or conforming with clues left by the previous Dalai Lama about his next rebirth.

The role of the Dalai Lama

1. The promotion of human values

   • Promote values such as compassion, forgiveness, tolerance, contentment and self discipline

   • All humans want happiness and do not want suffering

   • Emphasise “human values” rather than “Buddhist values”

   • “Developing a kind heart is not just for people who believe in religion… it is for anybody who considers himself to be a member of the human family”

2. The promotion of religious harmony”

   • Aim to promote pluralism and resolve the conflicts that occur between religions

   • Rather than adding to Buddhist teachings the Dalai Lama is merely fulfilling those promoted by the Buddha who advised “if you find truth in any religion, accept the truth”

3. Commitment to the Tibetan cause

Sangha

Means ‘assembly’ - It can mean everyone who practices Buddhism, but within the Theravada tradition it tends to refer to the order of Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis (nuns).

Sangha Theravada tradition

• Provide the bhikkus with alms (food and donations of money)

• Provide a community centre which may also be the focus of education teaching children how to read and adults how to build, farm and dig wells

• In some countries it may be used like a bank, a place where people deposit valuable belongings

• Lay Buddhists consider it an honour to contribute to the upkeep of the vihara and the welfare of the bhikkus as by making donations they are generating good karma for themselves

• Boys shave their eyebrows and hair as a symbol of poverty and shows they have given up attachments to material things

Sanga Mahayana tradition

• Do not believe that becoming a monk or a nun gives them a unique opportunity to work towards enlightenment

• Since an enlightened being has a deep understanding of the reality of life, those who live and work in the real world have equal access to Buddhahood so Mahayana monks do not cut themselves off from all attachments

• The relationship between the monastic and lay communities is still one of mutual dependence, they serve each other

• It is the duty of the bikhhus to preserve Buddhist treasures and make sure that the Buddhas teachings do not become corrupted

How the role of the sangha has changed

The Sangha used to provide education, teaching boys to read and write within the temple walls, however education in Thailand is now state-run. There have been schisms (conflicts) within the Thai Sangha over the last hundred years due to political issues in Thailand. Buddhist monks lost their right to protest in 2020.

Wat Phra Dhammakaya

A modern Theravada tradition found in Thailand. It was established in the early 20th Century and its main centre is a huge temple outside of Bangkok called the Wat Phra Dhammakaya.

Main features of the Wat Phra Dhammakaya Movement

• Emphasise lifetime commitment to those who joint the sangha

• Offer assistance to the Thai royal family and the main Thai sangha to show their loyalty to Buddhism as a whole

• Give great importance to their lineage of teachers

• It is revivalist, seeking to bring Buddhism back to the modern world

• It is focused on teaching meditation to large groups

• It brings men and women, and monks and laypeople, together as one Sangha

• It makes use of modern methods and technology

• It emphasises merit-making through giving and volunteering and has received criticism for this – particularly for promising a better rebirth for those who make large donations

Reasons for chanting

• Before printing the only way to pass on texts was to memorise them and pass them on orally

• Monks would chant in order to learn and remember them

• Shows devotion, helps calm and concentrate

Buddha rupa - statue of Buddha (devotion)

• Found in homes, temples, public spaces in Buddhas countries

• Mudra: meditation Buddha, calling earth to witness Buddha, medicine Buddha, protection Buddha, Budai

Mala beads (devotion)

Chanting mantras

Tibetan prayer flags (devotion)

• Gompas (Tibetan monasteries)

• ‘Om mami padme hum’ - the jewel in the lotus

Tibetan prayer wheel (devotion)

Used to generate good karma

Tibetan singing bowl (devotion)

Chinese standing bowl

Peter Harvey beliefs on conscience

• Hiri = self respect, the tendency to avoid actions that degrade oneself

• Ottappa = regard for consequences, an understanding of karma

• The practice of mindfulness allows an individual to be present and therefore conscious of their effect on the world

• Conscience is something to be cultivated by following the eightfold path through life, it is not the ‘voice’ of a higher being but instead the workings of a clear and focused mind

• Awareness of the three poisons and a desire to rid the mind of these will lead to performing acts that are kusala

• Akusala actions done with knowledge and intent lead to more karmic harm and guilt is important in making us aware of this

• However, according to Harvey guilt should only be preventative and should not lead to further “mental turbulence”