Traffic Light Exam Revision - Red

Processes of Memory

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Encoding

the processing of information into a suitable for for storage in the brain.

Storage

retention of information in the memory over time.

Retrieval

getting information out of stored memory.

Features of the multi-store model of memory

sensory register, short term memory, long term memory

Theorists of the multi-store model of memory + year

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

What is the sensory register (sensory memory)?

Holds basic information received from the senses, which can leave impressions even after stimuli has disappeared.

e.g., when you are twirling a sparkler and close your eyes, you get a brief after image of the pattern you made.

Sensory Register Capacity

Unlimited.

• stores all information in sensory registers for different senses

• most information is discarded

• important information is transferred to STM

Sensory Register Duration

milliseconds to 5 seconds.

• makes room for new input

Sensory Register Encoding

As a sense.

e.g., iconic/echoic encoding

What is the short term memory?

storage system that can retrieve information from the LTM. If information is rehearsed, it can be transferred from the STM to the LTM.

STM Capacity

5-9 pieces of information.

• contains current info, thoughts and experiences

• active/conscious processing of information and rehearsal

STM Duration

up to 30 seconds.

STM Encoding

mostly auditory.

What is the Long term memory?

information can fade over time is not retrieved often. Info can be interfered with during storage and retrieval.

LTM Capacity

Unlimited.

• up to a lifetime of information in theory

LTM Duration

30 seconds to a lifetime.

• relatively permanent

LTM encoding

Semantic (symbols).

• physical changes in the neurons of the brain for storage

What are the features of the working memory model?

the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer

What is the central executive?

Is responsible for organizing information and controlling the other systems. The ‘Master’ system.

What does the central executive do?

Directs attention to relevant information, suppresses irrelevant information and deals with cognitive tasks e.g., arithmetic and problem solving.

What part of the brain is the central executive controlled by?

The frontal lobes/prefrontal cortex.

What is the Phonological Loop?

the part of the WMM that deals with spoken and written material.

What does the phonological loop do?

stores and processes sounds of language (phonological info) and silently rehearses it. Spoken words enter the store directly and are held for 1-2 seconds, whilst written words must be converted into articulatory (spoken) code before entering the loop.

What part of the brain is the phonological loop controlled by?

The Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.

What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad?

stores visual and spatial information.

What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?

Constructs and manipulates visual + spatial information held in the LTM including details of shape, colour, motion, pattern and position. Represents mental maps.

What part of the brain is the visuo-spatial sketchpad controlled by?

The occipital lobes.

What is the episodic buffer?

a temporary store that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and Long-term memory.

What does the episodic buffer do?

Allows complex events or scenes that combine multiple sources of information to be held and manipulated in the working memory. Our ability to think about the past, plan for the future and solve problems relies on actively maintaining episodic representations.

What parts of the brain is the episodic buffer controlled by?

frontal, temporal and left hippocampus.

How is the Hippocampus involved in the formation of new memories?

• their cells are able to reproduce and enable new memories to be formed

• important for forming implicit/declarative memories and complex tasks that require declarative memory

• involved in establishing the background/context for each new memory e.g., location, situation, memory of places

• involved in spatial memory

How is the Hippocampus involved in consolidating and transferring new memory for storage?

• Consolidation (the process in which the brain forms a permanent representation of memory and transfers to LTM) of declarative memories occurs in the Hippocampus

• some of the encoding and storage process of declarative memories occurs here before being transferred to other parts of the brain (cerebral cortex) for permanent storage as LTM

What can damage to the Hippocampus cause?

an inability to remember directions/familiar locations - disorientation.

How is the Cerebellum involved in forming and storing implicit memories?

• procedural memories (how to perform a motor skill) are encoded, processed and stored by the cerebellum

• activates the relevant neural systems to retrieve a procedural memory, thereby enabling you to automatically perform a motor skill without conscious thought

• works with the primary cortex in the frontal lobes

How is the Amygdala involved in the formation of memories?

• attaches emotional significance to memories

• Facilitates encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing

• Procedural memories such as skill, learning and classical conditioning

• plays a key role in the formation of memories related to fear

• fearful memories are able to be formed after only a few repetitions

What are the 4 types of forgetting?

retrieval failure, interference (proactive and retroactive), motivated forgetting and decay theory.

What is retrieval failure?

The inability to recover and access a particular piece of information from storage in the LTM.

• the information is available - still stored

• but not accessible - cannot be retrieved

• because the internal/external retrieval cues aren’t present

  Applies to declarative memory (LTM) as it requires some amount of conscious effort for retrieval, but not procedural as retrieval is unconscious.

What are retrieval cues?

aspects of individual’s physical and cognitive environment that can trigger the memory.

External retrieval cue

information about the situation stored with the new memory.

Internal retrieval cue

the physical or psychological state of the person when the information was encoded and retrieved.

What is Interference?

forgetting that occurs due to the competing presence of other information being stored.

• usually occurs when information/memories are similar

  doesn’t apply to procedural memory

Proactive Interference

old information hinders the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

new information hinders the recall of old information.

What is motivated forgetting?

the process of blocking out threatening, embarrassing or painful memories, done consciously or unconsciously as a self-protection mechanism.

• done to reduce anxiety or protect our self-concept/self-image

Repression

unwanted thoughts or impulses being unconsciously pushed out of awareness into our subconscious mind.

• thought to linger in our subconscious and influence our behaviour as adults

Suppression

the act of consciously forgetting memories.

What is Decay Theory?

a type of forgetting that occurs when memories are not strengthened and fade or biologically degrade overtime.

• gradual fading of the physical memory trace (= a result of permanent changing of the neural pathways in our brains when forming memories).

• fading of these pathways make it more difficult to access the memory

• doesn’t apply as much to episodic memory (lived memory)

What are the 3 measures of memory retention?

recall, recognition and relearning.

Recognition

a process of retrieval that requires identification of a correct response from a set of alternatives.

Relearning

learning again something that has already been committed to memory.

• occurs more quickly than the original learning, assuming some information must have been retained

Savings score formula - for relearning

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

• a degenerative disease

• characterized by changes in the brain that lead to deposits of certain proteins

• causes the brain to shrink and brain cells to eventually die

Alzheimer’s Cognitive Changes

• Thinking and reasoning - difficulty concentrating and thinking, doing more than one task at once, managing finances and paying bills on time

• Making judgements and decisions - a person may make poor choices in social settings or wear clothes for the wrong type of weather, harder to respond to everyday problems e.g., not know how to handle food burning on the stove or make decisions while driving

• Planning and performing familiar tasks - routine activities that require completing steps in order become a struggle e.g., planning, cooking, playing a favourite game. Eventually forget how to dress/bathe.

Alzheimer’s Behavioural Changes

• social withdrawal

• changes in sleeping habits

• wandering

• loss of inhibitions

• delusions e.g., believing something has been stolen

Alzheimer’s Emotional Changes

• mood swings

• distrust in others

• anger or aggression

What is Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (WKS)?

a serious brain condition that is usually, but not exclusively, associated with chronic alcohol misuse and severe alcohol use disorder (AUD).

Describe the two brain disorders that make up Wernicke- Korsakoff Syndrome.

Wernicke’s disease and Korsakoff’s psychosis

• result from brain damage associated with AUD, combined with vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency

• In people with severe AUD, poor nutrition decreases the ability of the gut to absorb thiamine from food

• WK can be disabling, produce permanent memory loss and be life-threatening

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome behavioural changes

• lack of muscle coordination that can affect posture and balance and lead to tremors

• gait abnormalities (wide-based, short-stepped)

• an inability to stand or ambulate without assistance

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome Emotional Changes

• confusion

• apathy

  As it progresses:

• agitation

• anger

• hallucinations

• confabulations