AP Psychology Unit 3

Chronological development

development measured by age-related milestones over time

Lifespan development

study of physical

Stability and change

debate over whether traits remain consistent or change across the lifespan

Nature and nurture

interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental influences

Continuous development

development as a gradual and cumulative process

Discontinuous development

development occurring in distinct stages with qualitative differences

Teratogens

environmental agents that can cause prenatal harm

Fine motor coordination

control of small muscle movements

Gross motor coordination

control of large muscle movements

Maturation

biologically programmed growth independent of experience

Reflexes

automatic and inborn responses to stimuli

Rooting reflex

infant reflex involving head turning toward cheek stimulation

Visual cliff

apparatus used to test depth perception in infants

Critical periods

limited time spans when specific experiences are essential for development

Sensitive periods

optimal periods when learning is most effective

Imprinting

rapid attachment formed during a sensitive period

Growth spurt

rapid increase in height and weight during adolescence

Puberty

period of sexual maturation

Primary sex characteristics

reproductive organs directly involved in reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

physical traits associated with sexual maturity

Menarche

first menstrual cycle

Spermarche

first ejaculation

Menopause

natural cessation of menstruation

Schemas

mental frameworks used to organize and interpret information

Assimilation

interpreting new information using existing schemas

Accommodation

modifying schemas to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget stage where learning occurs through senses and actions

Object permanence

understanding that objects exist when out of sight

Preoperational stage

Piaget stage marked by symbolic thinking and egocentrism

Mental symbols

internal representations such as words or images

Pretend play

use of symbols to represent objects or roles

Conservation

understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance

Reversibility

ability to mentally undo actions

Animism

attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects

Egocentrism

inability to see another person’s perspective

Theory of mind

understanding that others have beliefs and thoughts different from one’s own

Concrete operational stage

Piaget stage involving logical reasoning about concrete events

Systematic thinking

logical and organized problem-solving

Formal operational stage

Piaget stage involving abstract and hypothetical thinking

Abstract thinking

thinking about concepts beyond physical reality

Hypothetical thinking

ability to reason about possible outcomes

Scaffolding

temporary support provided to assist learning

Zone of proximal development

range between what a learner can do independently and with help

Crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge and skills

Fluid intelligence

ability to solve novel problems

Dementia

progressive decline in cognitive functioning

Phonemes

smallest units of sound

Morphemes

smallest units of meaning

Semantics

meaning of words and sentences

Grammar

rules governing language structure

Syntax

rules for word order

Cooing

early vowel-like sounds produced by infants

Babbling

repetitive consonant-vowel sounds

One-word stage

single-word speech conveying full ideas

Telegraphic speech

two-word speech using mostly content words

Overgeneralization of language rules

applying grammar rules too broadly

Authoritarian parenting

high control and low warmth parenting style

Authoritative parenting

high control and high warmth parenting style associated with positive outcomes

Permissive parenting

low control and high warmth parenting style

Attachment styles

characteristic patterns of emotional bonds with caregivers

Secure attachment

caregiver is a secure base and source of comfort

Insecure attachment

attachment marked by inconsistency or lack of trust

Avoidant attachment

infant avoids caregiver and shows emotional distance

Anxious attachment

infant is distressed and overly dependent on caregiver

Disorganized attachment

inconsistent and confused attachment behaviors

Temperament

biologically based individual differences in emotional reactivity

Separation anxiety

distress experienced when separated from a caregiver

Parallel play

children play side by side with little interaction

Pretend play

imaginative play involving symbolic roles

Egocentrism

difficulty taking another person’s perspective

Imaginary audience

belief that others are constantly observing one’s behavior

Personal fable

belief in personal uniqueness and invulnerability

Social clock

culturally preferred timing of major life events

Emerging adulthood

transitional period between adolescence and full adulthood

Stage theory of psychosocial development

Erikson’s theory of eight developmental crises

Trust and mistrust

infancy stage focused on caregiver reliability

Autonomy and shame and doubt

toddler stage focused on independence

Initiative and guilt

early childhood stage focused on goal-directed behavior

Industry and inferiority

school-age stage focused on competence

Identity and role confusion

adolescent stage focused on self-definition

Intimacy and isolation

young adulthood stage focused on close relationships

Generativity and stagnation

middle adulthood stage focused on contribution to society

Integrity and despair

late adulthood stage focused on reflection on life

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

early life stressors linked to long-term outcomes

Achievement (adolescent development)

identity commitment following exploration

Diffusion (adolescent development)

lack of exploration and commitment

Foreclosure (adolescent development)

commitment without exploration

Moratorium (adolescent development)

exploration without commitment

Racial/ethnic identity

sense of belonging to a racial or ethnic group

Sexual orientation

enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction

Religious identity

identification with belief systems and practices

Occupational identity

sense of self related to career goals

Familial identity

sense of role within the family system

Possible selves

representations of what individuals may become

Behavioral perspective

psychological approach emphasizing observable behavior

Classical conditioning

learning through association between stimuli

Association

linking two stimuli or events

Acquisition

initial phase of learning a conditioned response

Associative learning

learning relationships between events

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that naturally elicits a response