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Orders of Magnitude
A method to express large or small numbers using powers of ten (e.g., 10^4 for 10000).
Significant Figures
The digits in a number that contribute to its precision, including all non-zero digits and any zeros between them.
Uncertainty
An estimate of the difference between a measurement and the true value, influenced by random and systematic errors.
Random Error
Unpredictable fluctuations in measurement readings due to uncontrolled factors.
Systematic Error
Errors resulting from faulty systems or flaws in the experimental method.
Absolute Uncertainty
Uncertainty expressed as a fixed quantity.
Fractional Uncertainty
Uncertainty expressed as a fraction of the total measurement.
Percentage Uncertainty
Uncertainty expressed as a percentage of the total measurement.
Scalars
Quantities that have magnitude only (e.g., distance).
Vectors
Quantities that have both magnitude and direction (e.g., displacement).
Error Bars
Graphical representations of uncertainty in measurements on graphs.
Lines of Best Fit
A straight line drawn to minimize the distance between data points on a graph.
Kinematics
The study of motion, including concepts like distance, speed, and acceleration.
Scalars vs
Scalars have only magnitude (e.g., speed), while vectors have both magnitude and direction (e.g., velocity).
SUVAT Equations
Four kinematic equations used to describe motion with constant acceleration.
Projectile Motion
Motion of an object under the influence of gravity, analyzed in vertical and horizontal components.
Newton’s First Law
An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a resultant force.
Newton’s Second Law
The resultant force on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration (F=ma).
Newton’s Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Contact Forces
Forces that act between objects in physical contact (e.g., friction).
Non-Contact Forces
Forces that act at a distance (e.g., gravitational force).
Hooke’s Law
The extension of a material is directly proportional to the applied force up to the limit of proportionality.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
The total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after, barring external forces.
Impulse
The change in momentum of an object, equal to the force applied over time.
Centripetal Force
The force required to keep an object moving in a circular path, directed towards the center of the circle.
Thermal Equilibrium
A state where two objects share the same temperature, resulting in no net heat flow.
Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K.
Phase Change
The transition of a substance from one state of matter to another (e.g., melting, boiling).
Pressure
The force exerted per unit area, calculated as P = F/A.
Ideal Gas Equation
PV = nRT, relating pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of moles of a gas.
Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas
Assumes perfectly elastic collisions and negligible molecular volume.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
A type of periodic motion where the restoring force is proportional to the displacement.
Wave Properties
Characteristics of waves, including amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and speed.
Doppler Effect
The change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer moving relative to the source of the wave.
Gravitational Field
A region where a mass experiences a force due to another mass.
Electric Field
A region where a charge experiences a force due to another charge.
Capacitance
The ability of a system to store charge per unit voltage.
Electromagnetic Induction
The process of generating an electromotive force (EMF) through a changing magnetic field.
Quantum Tunneling
A phenomenon where particles pass through a potential barrier they classically shouldn't be able to cross.
Stellar Evolution
The process by which a star changes over time, including stages like main sequence, red giant, and supernova.
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