Philosophy Final Exam

Ethics/ Ethics normative

deal with the question what we should or shouldnt do what is right and wrong

Psychological motivation

what motivates someone internally, Hume and rousseau believed morality is grounded by and desires, influencing ethical decisions.

Rational Intention

Focuses on a person’s intention

Kant's morality of an action depends on intention

Principle

The guiding rule behind action

Actual consequence/ consequentialism

What happened as a resul,t good or b,ad regardless of intention

The moral worth of consequences determines moral action

Rules of Principle

what rules are allowed, required, or forbidden

Morality

a system of rule guiding things that determine what is right or wrong

Meta Ethics

Moral values and properties and their nature, exploring questions like "What is goodness?" and "Do moral facts exist?"

Moral relativism

Gilbert harman

Morality is valid if a group agrees on certain moral standards for their culture, rejecting universal moral truths.

Ethics Subjectivism

Moral claims that express individual feelings

Ethical conventionalism/ Ethical relativism

right or wrong depending on cultural societal standard

Ethical values

Aristotle = humans are rational beings

Egoism

Ethical views that in ones self interest in morality

individualism importance of self interest in moral decision-making, suggesting that actions are morally right if they promote one's own interests.

divine command theory

an action is right or wrong if gods commands it so (10 commandments)

Aristotle ethics

morality is about being a or becoming a moral, good, virtuous person

utilitarianism

Actions are morally right if they produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

It focuses on right and wrong based on the outcome

developed by Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill

maximizing happiness

Autonomy

The capacity to make moral decisions because you can understand what is moral, you make choices by reason,n but not reason alone blindly

Autonomy emphasizes individual freedom and self-determination in ethical decision-making.

Natural law

morality is not just driven by divine command (10 commandments) it is also driven by human nature and reason

Egotism/ Egoistic position

selfness and self centered

Psychological egoism

Self-interest motivates the theory, suggesting that even altruistic acts are ultimately driven by personal gain or benefit.

humans are..

esentially

• can’t help but act the way they do

neccesarily

• self interested

Ethical egoism

the right action is always the one that promotes one’s own self interest

Plato

Some people don’t have the strength to do what’s best for themselves, even those who act justly may only do so because they are too weak to get away with being unjust

Lydian Gyges story of the ancestors

A man wears a ring of invisibility that allows him to do devious things

believes unjust actions are better than “just” actions to him

Eudaemonia

Greek (flourishing) (human well being)

egoism is to enable the individual to thrive

living a meaningful life

libertarianism

that freedom is the most important political view

Altruism

belief that being good means putting others first even if it means giving up your own needs and desires. It emphasizes selflessness and moral obligation to help others.

psychological altruism

people naturally care about others wihtout personal gain

Ethical altruism

we should put others needs before our own it the right way to live

the golden rule

treat others the way you want to be treated

mencius

a disciple of the great Chinese philosopher Confucius, Mencius is known for his contributions to Confucian thought

believes people are naturally good

we are all built with a sense of compassion

xunzi

Confucian thinker

People are naturally selfish

Goodness comes from training and education

Moral and good behavior are not natural

Joseph Buter

western philosopher

we have a natural ability to feel compassion

it is in our biological make up to acre about others and that empathy is fundamental to human nature.

Telos

everything has a purpose for humans its to live rationally and use our mind well

Arete

being a good human by learning qualities like courage, justice, and wisdom

Function Argument

a good human and life is guided by moral virtue and rational thinking that enable us to fulfill our potential and achieve our purpose in life.

Doctrine of the mean

virtue is found in between two extremes too much or too little “mean” is the right amount

• courage

• generosity

• confidence

• patience

Phronesis

Kalos kagathos

the idea of being a noble and complete person both in the mind and body

The contemplative life: Aristotle highest good

thinking deeply, using reason, and seeking truth is the best way to live

self sufficient, peaceful not for reward but because its value

lets us access our “divine element” (our highest nature)

epicureanism

It was not about wild pleasure or luxury

core beliefs

• only pleasure is good (PL^G)

• only pain is bad (PN^B)

• Everything else is natural (VN^i), like mone,y fame power

ataraxia

inner peace, no fear, no phsyical pain

stoicism

self-control and duty, live by reason and nature, master emotions

core beliefs

• only virtue is good (V^R)

• Only vice is bad (V^C)

• Everything else is different (VN^I), even wealth or illness

James-Lange Theory: Emotions follow physical reactions

social identity theory

We form our identity partly from our group

oikeiosis (stoic idea)

we first care for ourselves, then for family then for others and society, emphasizing the natural progression of concern.

Xenophobia

fear of outsiders

dokephilia

loves of ones own group which can turn into bias favoring in-group members over outsiders.

Justice

starts with a person's virtue (being fair)

grows into social responsibility (treating everyone fairly)

shame

isn’t full virtue

quasi virtue

moral awareness

normative ethics

what makes a good action

negative utilitarianism

minimizing harm to reduce suffering for the greatest number

preference utilitarianism

judge’s actions based on their capacity to fulfill someone’s desires and preferences, rather than merely the outcomes.

James Mill

maximizing overall happiness

It’s better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied

Hedonism

pleasure is the ultimate good

Jeremy Bentham

founder of utilitarianism

laws should be made to maximize happiness

human are ruled by the desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain

Utility/Application

approves or disapproves actions based on how much happiness is produced

happiness calculus or (hedonic calculus)

Bentham Method to measure pleasure

• intensity - how strong the pleasure is

• duration - how long will it last

• certainty - how likely is it to happen

• propinquity - how soon will it happen

• fecundity - will it lead to more pleasure

• purity - is it free from pain

• extent - how many people are affected

pig philosophy

better Sócrates dissatisfied than a feel stifled dissatisfied

people pick easy pleasure over something worth waiting long term for

Empirical observation

learning from experience

moral principle

reasoned moral law

act utilitarianism

judge individual action and how much happiness it will produce

rule of utilitarian

judges the rule and, if followed correctly will produce happiness in the long run

deontology

deon = duty

morality is about doing ones duty and not about reult

action

has moral worth

done without self interest

moral worth

• comes form the motive not the outcome

Kant

The principle must motivate the action

Give someone moral agency when they have no intention behind their actions

Universiability

a moral principle or maxim must be something you could will to be a law for everyone not just yourself

non contradiction test

if the rule to everyone is self defeating or impossible then the action is not moral

ex. lying promise (situation) ill lie to borrow money (maxim) trust in promises would vanish universability

autonomous

auto (self) nomos (law) self ruled

a person acts to their own rational will with moral law but self ruled with no external influence

herternomis

hetero (other) and nomos ( law), meaning of the ruler

An individual’s actions are determined by external force instead of their own rational moral will

society

plato

three classes

• rulers (wisdom, auxiliaries (courage), producers(appetite)

• justice each class stick to their role

aristotle:

• Society should reflect on the natural hierarchy

• Tyranny, oligarchy, democracy.Not everyone is equal or fit for a role

types of justice (aristotle)

distributive justice

• fair distribution based on merit

rectification justice

• correcting wrongs (eg threft)

general justice

• individuals should be treated fairly

equality

Plato: people are born with different natures that suit them

Aristotle: some people are unfit for leadership

egalitarianism

all men and women are equal

injustice

Plato: people leaving their natural roles causing societal chaos

Aristotle: taking more than one deserves (greed) or violating just proportions

thomas hobbes (1588-1679)

one of the first major social contract theorists

belived human natire in the “state of nature” is selfish

someone can come shut down and stop you from doing somethin free but with rules

state of nature

selfish, competitive, and violent

no justice in the state of nature

the social contract

rational solution fro the dangers of state of nature

give up some freedom for security or peace

natural equality

war if all against all

no trust

if everyone is equal everyone can be defeated

equality → distrust → fear → war

Hobbes’s three principal causes of quarrel

competition: for again - violence

different: for safety - defensive attack

Glory: for reputation - contempt and provocation

first and second law of nature

First: seek peace and follow it if others do the same

Second: be willing to give up some rights to ensure safety, but only if others will do it too

John Locke

No power in the government can shut down something of mine because i have a right to do a certain thing

State of Nature

• will do what they can to survive

• mature people create society

John Rawls

a theory of justice (1970)

A just society is fair to all, even the least advantaged

Justice is a virtue of social institutions and practices

• resembles Hume and holds a Kantian duty

• fair society doesn’t mean an equal distribution

• A just society will consider the welfare of the “worse off”

2 concepts of justice

equal liberty

• everyone should have equal basic rights and liberties

• liberty must be maximized without causing conflict

difference principle

• inequalities (wealth, power, etc) are justified if

• they benefit everyone even the worst off and all positions are equally reachable

• reject utilitarianism

practice

an activity in accordance with rules

entitlement theory

people are entitled to what they own as long as it was acquired and transferred justly

justice in holdings

original acquisition

• How did someone first obtain property without violating someone's right

transfer of holdings

transfer of property must be voluntary if the process is fair, the person is entitled to it

rectifications

If past acquisitions or transfers were unjust, they need to be fixed

Nozick doesn’t develop this idea, but implies it in his theory above

Robert Nozick

american philsopher

Enforcing any pattern distribution violates people’s rights

Individuals have strong rights that limit what other may do to them.

Redistribution of wealth by the state is unjust

• Rawls promotes fairness, and Nozick promotes people are entitled to what they acquire and what they worked hard for