Globalisation and Crime

What is globalisation?

The increasing interconnectedness of societies, so that what happens in one locality is shaped by distant events.

What are the causes of globalisation? [5]

• Spread of new technology.

• The influence of global mass media.

• Cheap air travel.

• The deregulation of financial markets and their opening up to competition.

• It’s easier for businesses to relocate.

Who suggests that there has been a globalisation of crime?

Held et al (1999)

What did Held et al (1999) say about crime and globalisation?

• They suggest that there has been a globalisation of crime.

• Globalisation → new opportunities for crime, new ways of committing crime and and new crimes.

What is the globalisation of crime?

An increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders.

What does Castells (1998) note about the globalisation of crime?

There is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion per year.

Who noted that there is now a global criminal economy worth £1 trillion per year?

Castells (1998)

In what ways does the global criminal economy take place?

• Arms trafficking

• Smuggling of illegal immigrants

• Human trafficking

• Sex tourism

• Cyber crimes

• Green crimes

• International terrorism

• Smuggling/Trafficking of (il)legal goods, cultural artefacts and artwork.

• Trafficking endangered species

• The drug trade

• Money laundering

How much is the drug trade estimated to be worth?

$300 billion annually

How much does the Chinese Triads make a year from the smuggling of illegal immigrants?

$2.5 billion

Explain the supply and demand sides of the criminal economy?

• There is high demand for its products and services in the West.

• The existence of the supply that keeps the economy afloat is due to globalisation.

  • E.g. developing drug-producing companies like Colombia.

  • Around 20% of the population depend on cocaine production and cocaine outsells all other exports combined.

What is the impact of globalisation and crime? [4]

• The global crime economy has created new insecurities → a new mentality of risk consciousness.

• Now risk is seen as global, rather than connected to one place.

• A result of this risk consciousness is increased social control at a national level.

• It has also resulted in attempts at international cooperation.

Who argues that globalisation has changed the patterns and extent of crime?

Taylor (1997)

What does Taylor (1997) say about globalisation, capitalism and crime?

• Globalisation → changes in the pattern and extent of crime.

• Giving free rein to market forces → cerated more inequality, leading to more crime.

• Globalisation has created more crime at both ends of the social spectrum.

How, according to Taylor (1997) has globalisation created more crime on both ends of the social spectrum?

• It has led to crime at the bottom of the social hierarchy because:

  • It allows transnational corporations to outsource their labour → job insecurity, unemployment and poverty.

  • Deregulation → governments have little control over their own economies and spending on welfare has declined.

  • Marketisation → individuals see themselves as consumers → increased individualisation.

  • The materialistic culture of the global media portrays success in terms of a lifestyle of consumption.

• Globalisation has created criminal opportunities for people at the top of the social hierarchy:

  • Deregulation → opportunities for insider traiding and tax avoidance.

  • The creation of transnational bodies has created the opportunity for fraudulent claims for subsidies.

How can Taylor (1997) be criticised?

He explains the new patterns in crime but does not explain how the changes brought about by globalisation lead to people committing crime.

What did Rothe and Friedrichs (2015) say about the role of international financial organisations?

• They examine the role of these institutions, like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.

• These organisations are dominated by major capitalist countries.

• Despite the World Bank having 188 members, just 5 hold over a third of the voting rights (the USA, Japan, Germany, Britain and France).

• These organisations impose pro-capitalist, neoliberal economic structural adjustment programmes on poorer countries, as a condition of the loans.

• This often requires the governments to cut spending on health and education and to privatise publicly-owned services.

• This allows Western businesses to expand into these countries whilst creating the conditions for crime.

Who said that international financial organisations impose neoliberal economic structural adjustment programmes on poorer countries to help Western businesses?

Rothe and Friedrichs (2015)

What did Cain (2010) say about the actions of the IMF and World Bank?

These organisations act as a global state that doesn’t necessarily break any laws but their actions cause widespread harm.

Who said that international financial organisations act as a global state that doesn’t break any laws, but cause widespread harm?

Cain (2010)

Who says that the way crime organised is linked to the economic changes brought about by globalisation?

Hobbs and Dunningham (____)

What did Hobbs and Dunningham (____) say about organisded crime?

• The way crime is organised is linked to the economic changes caused by globalisation.

• Organised crime now invoolves individuals with contacts, creating a hub of loose-knit networks as opposed to the rigid hierarchies of the past.

• These networks are made up of people seeking both lefitimate and illegitimate opportunities/activities.

• These organisations tend to have international connections, but the crime happens in a local contexts.

• They describe these organisations as glocal.

What does crime being a glocal system mean?

• Crime is still locally based, but involves global connections.

• This means that the form of crime will vary based on the local context, but is influenced by global factors.

What is the McMafia?

The term Glenny (2008) uses to refer to criminal organisations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe after the fall of communism.

Who outlines how globalisation and the fall of communism led to more organised crime?

Glenny (2008)

What did Glenny (2008) say about organised crime and globalisation? [5]

• They trace the origins of transnational organised crime to the fall of the Soviet Union.

• The fall of communism de-regulated most sectors, apart from natural resources.

• People with money bought up these resources for cheap and sold them abroad at a large profit.

• This created a new Russian capital class known as oligarchs.

• The oligarchs turned to the mafia, who used crime, in order to protect their wealth.

How does the McMafia differ from the old Mafias?

• They are purely economic organisations that aren’t based on ethnicity and family ties.

  • E.g. the Chechen Mafia started to franchise its operations to non-Chechen groups.

What is green crime?

Crimes against the environment.

Who argues that we live in a global risk society?

Beck (1992)

What is an example of how the global nature of human risk leads to crime?

• In 2010, global warming → the hottest heat wave of the century, destroying a lot of hte crops in Russia.

• This increased the global price of grain.

• This meant that grain was unaffordable/inaccessible for many people in Mozambique who relied heavily on Russian imports.

• This lead to riots, looting and the deaths of at least a dozen people.

What are the two approaches to green criminology?

• Traditional criminology.

• Green criminology.

Who defines environmental crime as an unauthorised act or omission that violates the law?

Traditional criminologists, Situ and Emmons (2000)

How do the traditional criminologists Situ and Emmons (2000) define crime?

An unauthorised act or omission that violates the law.

How can traditional criminologists definition of green crime be criticised?

It accepts official definitions of environmental crime which have been shaped by powerful groups to serve their own interests.

Who argues that the real subject of criminology is any action that harms the environment and/or humans, even if no law has been broken?

White (2008)

What does White (2008) argue that criminology should focus on?

Any action that harms the environment and/or humans, even if no law has been broken.

What approach do green criminologists take?

Zemiology

What is zemiology?

The study of harms.

What is a benefit of the zemiological approach? [2]

• Different countries have different laws, so legal definitions can’t provide us with a consistent standard of harm.

• By moving away from legal definitions, green criminology can develop a global perspective on environmental harm.

What two views of harm does White (2008) identify?

• Anthropocentric view

• Ecocentric view

Who identifies the two views of harm?

White (2008)

What is an anthropocentric view?

The view that assumes that humans have a right to dominate nature for their own ends, putting economic growth before the environment.

What is an ecocentric view?

The view that sees humans and the environment as interdependent.

What view of harm would green criminologists adopt?

An ecocentric view

Who identifies the two types of green crime?

South (2014)

What are the two types of green crime South (2014) identifies?

• Primary green crime

• Secondary green crime

What is primary green crime?

Crimes that result directly from the destruction and degradation of the earth’s resources.

What are the four main types of primary green crime?

• Crimes of air pollution

• Crimes of deforestation

• Crimes of species decline and animal abuse

• Crimes of water pollution

What is secondary green crime?

Crime that grows out of the flouting of rules aimed as preveting or regulating environmental disasters.

What are the two types of secondary green crime that South talks about?

• State violence against oppositional groups

• Hazardous waste and organised crime

How much carbon does the burning of fossil fuels add to the atmosphere every year?

6 billion tons

Who identified that twice as many people now die from air-pollution comapred to twenty years ago?

Walters (2013)

What did Walter (2013) find about primary green crime?

Twice as many people now die from air-pollution compared to twenty years ago.

What proportion of the world’s rainforests were destroyed in the later half of the 20th century?

One fifth

How many species a day are becoming extinct?

50 species a day

What perccentage of mammals and birds are at risk?

• 46% mammal species

• 11% of bird species

How many pepole lack access to clean drinking water?

Half a billion

How many people die a year from drinking contaminated water?

25 million

What is an example of a crime of water pollution?

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill

What is an example of state violence against oppositional groups leading to secodnary green crime?

In 1985, the French secret service blew up the Greenpeace ship as the boat was there to prevent French nuclear weapons testing.

What is the Eco-mafia?

The term used to describe organised criminal activities that result in harm to the environments.

What example of secondary green crime that Bridgland (2006) talks about and how it links to globalisation?

After the tsunami of 2004, barrels of radioactive waste illegally dumped by Europeans wwashed up on the Somalian coast.

Who noted that after a tsunami, barrells of toxic waste illegally dumped by Europeans washed up on the shores of Somalia?

Bridgland (2006)

What is the cost of legal disposing in the USA compared to in developing countries?

In the USA it is around $2,500 per ton, whereas in some countries it is around $3.

Who argues that there is environmental discrimination?

South (2014)

What is environmental discrimination?

The fact that poorer groups are worse affected by pollution as environmental discrimination.

What is an example of environmental discrimination?

The fact that Black communities in the USA often find their housing located next to garbage dumps or polluting industries.

What is state crime?

Illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies.

Who defines state crime?

Green and Ward (2012)

How many people were murdered by the government in the 20th century?

262 million

What are the two reasons why stae crime is the most serious form of crime?

• The scale of state crime

• The state is the source of law

Who identifies the four catefories of state crime?

McLaughlin (2012)

What are the four categories of state crime that McLaughlin (2012) identify?

• Political crimes

• Crimes by security and police forces

• Economic crimes

• Social and cultural crimes

What is a genocide?

Acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group.

Who analysed the Rwanda genocide?

Straus (2015; 2016)

Outline the Rwanda genocide? [10]

• Rwanda was the setting of the 20th century’s fastest genocide.

• The Belgians used the Tutsi ethnic minority to control the Hutu majority.

• They weren’t actually different ethnic groups, rather different social classes.

• When Rwanda gained independence, the Hutus gained power.

• A civil war broke out in the 1990s.

• The Hutus tried to maintain power by spreading racist propaganda against the Tutsis.

• The attempted attack on the Hutu president → genocide.

• In 100 days, 800,000 Tutsis were slaughtered.

• This was justified through the use of dehumanising labels such as “cockroaches” and “rats”.

• Many Hutus were forced to either join in the killing or be killed.

What proportion of the Hutus were believed to have joined in the Rwanda genocide?

One third

Who distinguishes between the types of state-corporate crime?

Kramer and Michalowski (1993)

What are the two types of state-corporate crime according to Kramer and Michalowski (1993)?

• State-initiated corporate crime

• State-faciliated corporate crime

What is state-initiated corporate crime?

When the state initiates, directs or approve corporate crimes.

What is state-facilitated corporate crime?

When the state fails to regulate and control corporate behaviour, making crime easier.

What is an example of a state-initiated corporate crime?

• The Challenger space shuttle disaster.

• The risky, negligent and austere decisions of NASA → an explosion that killed seven astronauts.

What is an example of a state-facilitated corporate crime? [4]

• The Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

• The rig exploded and sank, killing eleven workers.

• This caused the largest accidental oil spill in history.

• The official inquiry found that government regulators had failed to oversee the industry adequately.

What are the two types of war crimes?

• Illegal wars

• Crimes committed during war or its aftermath

What makes a war illegal?

When, unless under the circumstance of self-defence, a war is initiated without being declared by the UN Security Council.

Who talked about how the US and UK lied to try and justify their illegal war against Iraq?

Kramer and Michalowski (2005)

What do Kramer and Michalowski say about the illegal war against Iraq?

They argue that to justify their invasion of Iraq through self-defence, the US and the UK falsely claimed that Iraq possessed weapons of mass desutrction.

Who describes the USA’s activities in Iraq as neo-liberal colonisation?

Whyte (2014)

What did Whyte (2014) say about war crimes in the aftermath of the Iraqui war?

• They describe what the USA did as a neo-liberal colonisation of Iraq.

• They changed the Iraqui constitution illegally so that the economy could be privatised.

• Iraqui oil revenues were seized by the US to pay for reconstruction, but there are few records of where these revenues went.

Who argues that the terror bombing of civilians has become normal?

Kramer (2014)

How does Chmabliss (1989) define state crime?

Acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representative of the states.

How can Chambliss’ (1989) definition of state crime be criticised? [3]

• It ignores that the state can change laws to avoid criminalising their actions.

• The state can also make laws that allow them to carry out harmful acts.

• This creates inconsistencies as criminal law isn’t universal.

What perspective acknowledges that a lot of harm done by the state is not against the law?

Zemiology

How does Michalowski (1985) define state crime?

Illegal and legally permissible acts whose consequences are similar to those of illegal acts in the harm they cause.

Who argues that zemiology should replace the study of crime?

Hillyard et al (2004)

What does Hillyard et al (2004) say about defining and studying crime?

• They argue that we should replace the study of crime with zemiology.

• This would include a wider range of harms, e.g. state-facilitated poverty.

How can the zemiological of state crime be criticised?

It is too vague as it doesn’t explain what level of harm is considered a crime and doesn’t decide what should count as harm.

What do interactionists say about the definition of state crime?

They argue that an act is considered a crime depending on if society defines it as a crime.

What are the benefits the interactionists definition of state crime? [2]

• This recognises that state crime is a social construct and what is considered a state crime varies by cultures.

• This prevents sociologists from imposing their own beliefs about state crime.

Who found that anti-Iraq War protesters did not necessarily see the way as criminal?

Kauzlarish (2007)