Biology marking period one notes

Cohesion

water interacting w/ other WATER molecules and forming hydrogen bonds

cohesion is what helps water move from the roots of a tree to the very top

adhesion

water interacting w/ other POLAR molecules and forming hydrogen bonds

adhesion allows water to stick to the sides of a plant

Capillary action

Used by plants to transfer water from their roots to their leaves

pH

0 is the most acidic, 14 is most basic/alkaline

Law of conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only converted into something else

Monomer

Chemical subunits that combine to make polymers

Polymer

Macromolecule that is made up of many monomers

The four major classes of monomers

Amino acids (proteins), fatty acids (lipids), monosaccharides (polysaccharides), and nucleotides (DNA/RNA)

Hydrolysis

Reaction used to break polymers by adding water

Dehydration synthesis

Reaction used to build polymers by taking out water

Carbohydrate

Monomer

Complex carbohydrates include cellulose, starch, glycogen, and chitin

CH2O

Lipids

Polymer

Lipids do not have a real monomer, but are composed of subunits. Subunits being fatty acid and glycerol.

All lipids are nonpolar

The three important types of lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids

Proteins

Polymer, add up of amino acids, has peptide bonds between the amino acids

Four sub components of proteins are amino, groups, carbon groups, hydrogen, and R groups

Proteins carry out most jobs in the cell

All enzymes are proteins but not all proteins are enzymes

Nucleic acids

Polymer

Three sub components of nucleic acids being one five carbon sugar, one phosphate group, and one nitrogenous base.

Stores genetic information

cell membrane

Outer membrane of the cell

Controls the movement in and out of the cell

Cell wall

found in plant cells (Rarely bacteria)

Supports and protects cells

Cell wall is made up of cellulose in PLANT CELLS.

Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan in BACTERIA CELLS

Nucleus

Directs cell activity

Contains genetic material

Separated from the cytoplasm by nuclear membrane

Control center for the cell. Contains all the instructions (DNA)

Nuclear membrane

Surrounds membrane

Made of two layers

Allow material to enter and leave the nucleus

Chromosomes

In the nucleus

Made of DNA

Contains instructions for traits and characteristics

Nuceolus

Inside the nucleus

Contains RNA to build proteins

Cytoplasm

Gel-like mixture surrounded by a cell membrane

Contains hereditary material

endoplasmic reticulum

Moves material around cell

Two types

rough ER

Contains ribosomes on the surface (Provides rough texture)

compartmentalizes the cell

Packages new proteins made by the ribosomes

Focuses on aiding metabolic (digesting) activities.

Smooth ER

No attached ribosomes (ergo smooth surface)

Detoxifies the cell & synthesizes lipids

Lipids allow for encasing of the SER until it is to be placed in a new hydrophobic environment

Ribosomes

In every cell

Made up of RNA and proteins, they SYNTHESIZE proteins

Found floating through the cell

Made up of 2 subunits, LARGE ribosomal unit and SMALL ribosomal unit

Mitochondria

Power house of the cell

Produces ATP through chemical reactions

Breaks down fats & carbohydrates, Controls levels of water and other material in the cell, Recycles & decomposes proteins, fats, & carbs.

Both inner and outer membranes are smooth

Responsible for cellular respiration; electron transport chain, reaction happens at the membrane

Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

Cristae: the folding of the inner membrane (increases surface area)

Golgi bodies

Proteins packing plant

Moves materials WITHIN the cell

Moves materials OUT of the cell

Golgi complex (apparatus)

All eukaryotic cells

Involved w proper folding and modification of new proteins & packing and trafficking them within and out the cell Believed

Focused on preparation and distribution of compounds

Lysosomes

DIGESTIVE plant for proteins, fats, & carbs

Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal

Digest damaged and degraded cell parts or macromolecules

Contains hydrolic enzymes for digestion

The cell will break down if the lysosome explodes

Vacuoles

Membrane bound sack for storage

Stores water or other macromolecules for later use

Will store and eventually release waste products

Digestion and waste removal

Contains water solution helps plants maintain shape

Chloroplast

ONLY in plant cells and autotrophic algae

Contains chlorophyll

Where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells; designed for capturing light energy; main function is to utilize light energy (photons), and CO2 to make glucose

2 main structures; thylakoid and grana

Thylakoid; highly folded membrane compartments that are organized in stacks. (Contain chlorophyll pigments that compromise the photosystems and electron transport proteins

Grana; stacks of discs made of thylakoid

stroma; fluid between the inner chloroplast membrane and outside the thylakoids

Plasma membrane

Found in ALL cells

Separated extra cellular and intercellular environments

Controls all materials that enter and exit the cell

Believed that all membrane bound organelles are just extensions of the cell membrane

Cytoskeleton

Eukaryotic cells (Not usually plant cells)

Consists of three fibers, microtubles, micro filaments, intermediate filament

microtubles; used for separation of cells and DNA in mitosis and meiosis. Also important for cilia and flagella movements

Microfilaments; major role in muscle contraction

Intermediate filament; reinforce shape and strength

Centrioles

Animal cells

Always in pairs

Aid cell division(meiosis and mitosis) by organizing microtubles

Help determine the reaction of all the organelles in an animal cell

Peroxisomes

In all eukaryotic cells, surrounded by membrane

Contains enzymes to to ease function, oxidize unwanted materials (useless/damaged fatty acids and amino acids)

differ from lysosomes b/c lysosomes DIGEST, peroxisomes OXIDIZE

they prevent oxygen peroxide (H2O2) byproducts from accumulating in the cell

Endosymbiosis

A theory that states primitive prokaryotes engulfed primitive plastids (mitochondria & chloroplasts) and instead of destroying them, created and endosymbiotic relationship and evolved to rely on one another

Facts that support this theory; double membrane, each plastid has their own DNA, plastid DNA is circular unlike bacteria, they have microscopic ribosomes, and they divide in a fission like process.

Enzymes

Belong to the protein family of macromolecules

Biological catalysts meaning they are made of organic material and are made by living organisms

In order for an enzyme to work it’s tertiary and quaternary's structure must be intact (this is to ensure the active site has its proper structure)

Every enzyme has an active site specific to its substrate.

Law of thermodynamics at a glance

Law 1: energy cannot be created nor destroyed, can only change forms. For AP bio only two basic forms of energy are needed to know

Kinetic energy associated with/ movement & potential energy stored based on position height etc

Chemical energy still exists in chemical bonds (it is considered stored energy) therefore a type of potential energy.

Enzyme function theories

1. Lock and key - emphasizes that enzymes have specificity/works w only specific shapes that a substrate have (one lock fits only one key)

2. hand and glove theory (also called induced fit) essentially same as lock and key.

CATALYSTS!!!

Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction w/out itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. Catalysts do this by decreasing the needed activation energy for any given reaction

Enzymes are not included in this reaction but they assist.

2 types of catalysts

ENZYMES: catalysts made up of proteins (most catalysts are enzymes)

RIBOENZYMES: catalysts made of RNA (involved W/ the creation and destruction of proteins)

Reactants & products

A reactant is the “before” and a product is the “after” of a reaction

Activation energy

Energy needed for for a reaction to go forward (the distance between the reactants and the peak of the graph)

CO2 + H2O >< H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Active site

The active site is the location on the enzyme where the substrate bonds

The active site is what must be specific to the enzyme, and compatible w the substrate

Changing properties of the active site; charges, size, shape, or other chemical properties

Substrate

The substrate is the molecule(s) that are being hydrolyzed or synthesized

Hydrolyzed: breaking bonds by adding water

Synthesized: building bonds by removing water

Naming enzymes

Enzymes bus ALWAYS end w the suffix -ase

Enzyme prefixes usually identify what reaction the enzyme is involved in

LipASE, sucrASE, proteASE

Two kinds of respiration

AEROBIC respiration; requires O2

ANAEROBIC respiration; does not require O2

Two kinds of fermentation

ALCOHOLIC fermentation; makes alcohol, occurs in bacteria/yeast cells, human use = brewing/distilling

LACTIC ACID fermentation; making lactic acid, humans do this in their muscles w/ NO O2, human effect = muscle fatigue (the burning feeling in muscles)

Aerobic respiration 3 steps

1. Glycolysis; occurs in cytoplasm, splits glucose into 2 Pyruvic acid, produces 2 ATP

2. The Krebs cycle; pyruvic acid is changed into 2 ATP, occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria

3. The electron transport chain; hydrogen ions from pyruvic acid are bounced around in mitochondria (the inner membrane), 32 ATP are produced in the end

   TOTAL OF 36 ATP IS PRODUCED THROUGH AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Net reaction: C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + 36 ATP

Protein denaturing

The process of breaking the bonds and forces that hold a proteins structure together causing it to unfold or unravel.