Pharmacy School Lecture Notes

Flashcards for review

Define an enzyme in a broader sense.

Proteins that categorically alter the rate of chemical reactions without requiring the aid of an external energy source or being charged themselves.

What are enzymes known to act exclusively on?

Certain substances known as substrates.

What do enzymes and their corresponding substrates invariably give rise to?

An enzyme-substrate complex, which involves not only physical shape but also chemical bonding.

What are the optimum conditions at which each enzyme acts?

An optimum temperature and a pH, at which it does function most efficaciously.

What factors may cause impaired activity of enzymes?

Extremes of pH, temperature, dehydration, UV-radiation, and the presence of heavy metals.

What do certain enzymes require to function properly?

The presence of coenzymes (i.e., non protein molecules e.g., Vitamins) to enable them function properly; whereas, still others require some critical minerals, such as: Fe, Cu, Zn).

What is a proenzyme?

An inactive form of an enzyme that must be activated by appropriate means.

What is the function of a deaminizing enzyme?

Splits amine off amino acid chemical compounds.

What is the function of a decarboxylating enzyme?

Separates specifically carbon dioxide [CO,] from organic acids.

What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Controls digestive processes in the alimentary canal.

What is the function of fermenting enzymes?

Brings about fermentation especially of the carbohydrates and produced by organisms or yeasts.

What is the function of hydrolytic enzymes?

Catalyses the phenomenon of hydrolysis.

What is the function of lipolytic enzymes?

Catalyses the hydrolysis of fats (triglycerides)

What is the function of mucolytic enzymes?

Depolymerizes mucous by splitting mucoproteins.

What is the function of proteolytic enzymes?

Catalyses the conversion of proteins into peptides.

What is the function of redox enzymes?

Catalyzes oxidation-reduction reactions.

What is the function of respiratory enzymes?

Acts within tissue cells to catalyze oxidative reactions by releasing energy.

What is the function of transferring enzymes?

Facilitates the moving of one molecule to another chemical entity.

Pepsin

Proteolytic enzyme derived from the glandular layer of fresh stomach of hog [sus scrofa (Suidae)) that converts protein into peptone as well as proteose.

Rennin (Chymosin)

Proteolytic enzyme derived from the glandular layer of fresh stomach of calf [Bos taurus (Bovidae)) used in the commercial manufacture of different types of processed cheese.

Seratiopeptidase

Proteolytic enyzme derived from Serratia is used To increase the effects antibiotic due to its inherent anti-inflammatory activity.

Streptokinase

Plasminogen activator derived from Culture filtrates obtained from p-hemolytic Streptococci- Group C. for use in thromboembolic disorders.

L-Asparaginase

Hydrolytic enzyme found in Escherichia coli, plant, animal tissues, fungi and yeast used to interferes with growth of malignant cells.

Define Protein.

A class of rather complex nitrogenous compounds that are synthesized by all living organisms, and yield respective array of amino acids when hydrolyzed.

What elements are proteins composed of?

C, H, O, N, P, S, and Fe, which ultimately make up the greater segment of the animal and plant tissue.

What is a complete protein?

One that predominantly contains all the essential amino acids ex., arginine, histidine, isoleucine, lysine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

List major animal proteins and their respective sources

Lactalbumin; Lactoglobulin - Milk; Milk products; Ovalbumin; Ovaglobulin - Eggs; Egg powder; Serum albumin - Blood serum; Myosin; Actin - Striated muscle fibers/tissues; Fibrinogen Blood; Serum globulin - Serum; Thyroglobulin - Thyroid gland; Globin - Blood; Thymus histones; -Thynus gland; Collagen; Gelatin - Connective tissues; Keratin - Epidermis; Hairs; Nails; Horny Tissue; Chondoprotein Tendons; Cartilage; Mucin; Mucoids -Secreting glands and animal mucilaginous substances; Caseinogen - Milk; Milk products; Vitallin Egg-yolk; Hemoglobulin - Red blood cells [RBCs]; Lecithoprotein - Blood; Brain; Bile secretions;

Acute Phase Protein

Protein with a Specific role in fighting pathogens that is not so clear, but they are believed to influence the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) significantly. Examples: Complement factor C, and C-reactive protein.

Blood Protein

Integral component of blood, including hemoglobin in RBCs and serum proteins.

Carrier Protein

Protein that Elicits an immune-response when coupled with a hapten.

Complete Protein

Proteins that contain all the essential amino acids.

Conjugated Protein

Proteins that They usually contain the protein molecule along with certain other molecules. Examples: Chromoproteins [e.g., hemoglobin]; glycoproteins [e.g., mucin]; lecithoproteins, nucleoproteins, and phosphoproteins [e.g., casein]

C-Reactive Protein

An ‘abnormal protein’ detectable specifically and exclusively in blood during the active phase of some human diseases viz., rheumatic fever.

Where do amino acids occur in plants?

Both in the free state and as the basic units of proteins and other metabolites.

What are amino acids?

Compounds containing one or more amino groups and one or more carboxylic acid groups.

What is the general formula of most naturally occurring α-amino acids?

R—-CH(NH2)COOH

Alkaloids

Organic nitrogenous compounds possessing basic properties (owing to the presence of amino N) and marked physiological activities in the majority of instances.

True alkaloids

Alkaloids Are derived from amino acids and have nitrogen in a heterocyclic ring.

Proto alkaloids

Alkaloids That are derived from amino acids and do not have nitrogen in a heterocyclic ring.

Pseudo alkaloids

Alkaloids That are not derived from amino acids but have nitrogen in a heterocyclic ring.

Atypical alkaloids

Nonheterocyclic alkaloids and contain nitrogen in aliphatic chain.

Typical alkaloids

Heterocyclic alkaloids and contain nitrogen in heterocyclic ring system.

What is quinine used to treat?

Antimalarial

What is Colchicine used to treat?

Gout

What is Ergotamine used for?

Oxytocic, Anti-HT

What is Taxol used for?

Anticancer

What is Lobeline used for?

Asthma

What is Vasicine used for?

Antitussive

What is Hygrine used for?

CNS Stimulant

What is Solasodine used for?

Steroidal precursor

What is Pilocarpine used for?

Contraction of pupil

What is Aconitine used for?

Neuralgia

What precursors are used to make Alkaloids?

Phenylalanine, Omithine,Leucine,Lysine, Geranylgeranyldiphosphate, Tyrosine,Tryptophan,Cholesterol, Acetate,Nicotioic acids, Histidine

What are the general properties of Alkaloids ?

In addition to C and H they all contain N and generally also O; Most of the nonvolatile alkaloids are solid, the volatile ones are mainly liquid and these often contain no oxygen;They are mainly crystallizable, though a few are amorphous; They are generally white though berberine is yellow and sanguinarine itself colorless yields red salts;They are either insoluble/sparingly soluble in water but soluble In alcohol, CHCIL3, C6H6

List Examples of Alkaloidal Precipitants

Mayer's Reagent Mercuric-Potassium-lodide; Marme’s Reagent - Potassium-Cadmium-lodide; Dragendorff’s Reagent - Potassium-Bismuth-lodide; Wagner's Reagent - Iodine in Potassium lodide

Describe Process A for EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS

The powdered material is moistened with water and mixed with lime which combines with acids, tannins and other phenolic substances and sets free the alkaloids (if they exist in the plant as salts). Extraction is then carried out with organic solvents such as ether or petroleum spirit. The concentrated organic liquid is then shaken with aqueous acid and allowed to separate. Alkaloid salts are now in the aqueous liquid, while many impurities remain behind in the organic liquid.

Describe Process B for EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS

The powdered material is extracted with water or aqueous alcohol containing dilute acid. Pigments and other unwanted materials are removed by shaking with chloroform or other organic solvents. The free alkaloids are then precipitated by the addition of excess sodium bicarbonate or ammonia and separated by filtration or by extraction with organic solvents.

List examples of pyridine and Piperidine drugs

Areca, Lobelia, Tobacco

List examples of tropane drugs

Belladonna, Hyoscyamus/Henbane, Egyptian Henbane,Stramonium/Jimson weed/Jamestown weed, Coca/Coca leaves

List examples of quinoline drugs

Cinchona/Cinchona Bark/Peruvian Bark

List examples of isoquinoline drugs

Ipecac, Hydrastis/Golden seal,Sanguinaria, Curare/South American Arrow Poison, Opium/Gum opium

List examples of Indole alkaloids drugs

Rauwolfia serpentina, Catharanthus/Vinca, Nux vomica,Physostigma/Calabar Bean/Ordeal Bean, Ergot/Rye Ergot/Secale Cornutum

List examples of Imidazole drugs

Pilocarpus/Jaborandi

List examples of Steroidal drugs

Veratrum viride/American/Green Hellebore, White Hellebore/European Hellebore

List examples of Alkaloidal amines drugs

Ephedra/Ma Huang, Colchicum, Khat/Abyssinian tea,Peyote/Mescal buttons

List examples of Purine Bases drugs

Kola/Cola/Kolanuts, Coffee Bean/Coffee Seed,Guarana, Mate/Paraguay Tea, Thea/Tea,Theobroma

List actions of alkaloids

Analgesics and narcotics, Central stimulants,Mydriatics,Miotics, Cause arise in blood pressure, Decrease blood pressure in hypertension

Steroidal hormones

Easily penetrates the cell membrane (smaller in size and lipophilic character)

Peptide hormones

Derived from amino acids

What ratio does the adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)?

17:3

Thyroid Hormones

Thyroxine (T4), liothyronine (T3), L-3,3’-diiodothyronine, L-3,5,5 -triiodothyronine

Posterior Pituitary Lobe Hormones:

Oxytoxin (alpha- hypophamine, Vasopressin (beta-hypophamine)

Anterior Pituitary Lobe Hormones

Adrenocorticotropic hormone, Prolactin, Gonadotropic Hormone, Growth Hormone, Thyrotropin

Hormones of the Pancreas

Glucagon (produced by the alpha cells),Insulin (produced by the beta cells)

Parathyroid Gland Hormones

Parathyroid Hormone/ Parathyrin,Calcitonin

Gastrointestinal Hormones

Cholecystokinin,Gastrin, Secretin

Classes of Plant Hormones

Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins Abscisic acid, Ethylene

Auxins

Plant hormones that controls elongation of cells in the coleoptile & other parts of the shoot

Gibberellins

Plant hormones that, promote elongation of cells & stems In some plants, they stimulate flowering, fruit development, seed germination & bud sprouting period

Cytokinins

Plant hormone that promote cell division in plant tissues, thus they stimulate fruit, endosperm & embryonic development & the sprouting of buds.

Ethylene

Plant hormone that is a gas at normal environmental temperature that cause ripening of fruits, stimulate separation of cell walls in abscission layers, allowing leaves, flowers & fruits to drop off at the appropriate time

Abscisic acid

An inhibitory Plant hormone; helps plant to withstand unfavorable environment conditions, causes stomata to close when water availability is low and inhibits the activity of gibberellins, thus maintaining the dormancy in buds & seeds during times when germination would be dangerous

Vitamins

Organic molecule which are essential to the proper functioning of the human organism.

Vitamin A (A1, A2)

Anti-infective or antixerophthalmic vitamin, retinol, abundant in Fish livers and Plants

Vitamin B₁

Aneurine, thiamine, found in Rice polishings, cereal germ, animal organs, yeast.

Vitamin B2

Riboflavine, Widely distributed in both plants and animals; bacteria, yeasts and other fungi, cereal grains and many fruits

Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid, found in Fruits, particularly citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes, capsicums; raw vegetables; or made synthetically

Vitamin D2

Antirachitic vitamin; calciferol, ergocalciferol, Calciferol is produced by irradiation of ergosterol

Vitamin E

Tocopherols, alpha tocopheryl acetate, found in Embryos of cereals (wheat and maize germ oils); other vegetable oils (palm, olive, etc.); fresh vegetables, nuts, eggs, butter

Vitamin K₁

Phytomenadione, coagulation factor, antihaemorrhagic vitamin, can be derived From plants (e.g. alfalfa, lucerne, tomatoes, etc.); or by synthesis.

Ubiquinone 10

Ubidecanenone; coenzyme Q10. A coenzyme found in liver; also in other metabolic tissues of plants and animals Has been referred to as Vitamin Q10

Vitamin A

Essential for the normal functioning of the body epithelia and the retina. Deficiency is indicated by night blindness and by a drying and crusting of the mucous membranes

Vitamin D

Regulates the calcium and phosphorus balance in the body by direct action on phosphorus metabolism. It promotes calcium absorption and is an essential factor in bone formation (a deficiency causes rickets).

Vitamin E

powerful antioxidant. Can Assist protection of the cardiovascular system. Traditionally the vitamin has been associated with the improvement of fertility

Vitamin K

Necessary factor in the blood-clotting process; it acts indirectly by activating those substances which are necessary for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.

Vitamin B1

Severe deficiency causes beri-beri

Vitamin B2

Deficiency in humans is rarely encountered; symptoms include a cracking of the corners of the mouth, dermatitis and conjunctivitis.

Vitamin B3

The classical deficiency disease associated with the vitamin is pellagra Symptoms of deficiency are skin inflammation, diarrhea and delirium.

Vitamin C

Required for the development of cartilage, teeth and bones, for wound healing and for aiding the absorption of iron from the intestine. Gross deficiency causes scurvy; early signs of a lack of the vitamin in individuals are muscular weakness, tiredness, reduced resistance to infection and easy bruising.

PABA/para-aminobenzoic acid

precursor of folic acid , used as acid/ester as UV sunscreen