AP Pschology Unit 1

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Experimental Psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes.

Nature-Nurture Issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Levels of Analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Biological Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes.

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

Psychodynamic Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Social-Cultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Human Factors Psychology

the study of how people and machines interact resulting in the design of machines and environments.

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps; Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon.

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country's whole population.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Mary Whiton Calkins

Functional Psychology

Self-psychology and the paired-associate memory experiment

First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) but did not create a new field.

Charles Darwin

Evolutionary Psychology

"On the Origin of Species" (1859)

Dorothea Dix

Mental Health Advocacy

Conducted investigations and advocacy for the mentally ill in the United States

Did not create a field of psychology.

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis

"The Interpretation of Dreams" (1899

Founded the field of psychoanalysis.

G. Stanley Hall

Developmental Psychology

Pioneered research on child development and established the first U.S. psychology laboratory

Contributed to the establishment of developmental psychology but did not create a new field.

William James

Functionalism

"The Principles of Psychology" (1890)\

Promoted functionalism but did not create a new field.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs theory

Founded humanistic psychology.

Ivan Pavlov

Behaviorism (Classical Conditioning)

Classical conditioning experiments with dogs

Contributed to the development of behaviorism.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Developmental Psychology

Theory of cognitive development in children

Contributed significantly to cognitive developmental psychology.

Carl Rogers

Humanistic Psychology (Client-Centered Therapy)

Client-centered therapy and self-actualization

Founded client-centered therapy within humanistic psychology.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism (Operant Conditioning)

Operant conditioning experiments and principles

Contributed significantly to behaviorism.

Margaret Floy Washburn

Comparative Psychology and Experimental Psychology

Work on animal behavior and sensation and perception

Made significant contributions to experimental psychology and comparative psychology.

Edward B. Titchener

Structuralism

Structuralist psychology and introspection

Founded structuralism as a psychological school.

John B. Watson

Behaviorism

Little Albert experiment and behaviorism

Played a significant role in the development of behaviorism.

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralism

Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

Founded experimental psychology and structuralism.