Anatomy Final Exam

Endocrine System

secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream to maintain homeostasis.

Hormones

chemical messengers that act upon effectors to regulate bodily functions

a specific hormone must bind to a specific receptor in order to create a response

Main Endocrine Glands/Organs

pituitary gland - brain

hypothalamus - brain

thyroid gland - inferior neck just in front of trachea

adrenal gland - on top of kidneys; pyramidal shape

pineal gland - brain

parathyroid glands - neck; posterior surface of thyroid gland

pancreas - abdomen; sits posterior to the stomach

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

heart, thymus, adipose tissue, digestive tract, kidneys, gonads (testes & ovaries)

Hypothalamus Hormones

antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin (OXT), regulatory hormones

ADH & OXT travel through hypothalamic neurons (their axons) & eventually released by posterior part of pituitary galnd

Pituitary Gland Hormones

anterior lobe - adrenohypophysis

• adrenocorticotropic hormone - ACTH

• thyroid-stimulating hormone - TSH

• growth hormone - GH

• prolactin - PRL

• follicle-stimulating hormone - FSH

• luteinizing hormone - LH

• melanocyte-stimulating hormone - MSH

posterior lobe - neurohypophysis

• release of oxytocine OXT and antidiuretic hormone ADH

Thyroid Gland Hormones

thyroxine (T₄), triiodothyronine (T₃) - influence metabolism

calcitonin (CT) - lowers blood calcium levels

Adrenal Gland Hormones

Adrenal Medulla (inner portion)

• epinephrine (E)

• norepinephrine (NE)

Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)

• cortisol - increases blood sugar so we have energy to respond to internal & external stresses

• corticosterone

• aldosterone - promotes water retention to increase blood volume and pressure

• androgens - sex hormones; estrogen & testosterone

Pancreatic Islets Hormones

insulin - decreases blood sugar levels

glucagon - increases blood sugar levels

Pineal Gland Hormone

melatonin

Parathyroid Glands Hormones

parathyroid hormones (PTH) - increase blood calcium levels

Heart Hormones

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)

release water from body - lower bp and blood volume

Thymus Hormones

thymosins

Adipose Tissue Hormones

leptin & resistin

Digestive Tract Hormones

numerous hormones

Kidney Hormones

erythropoietin (EPO) - stimulates creation of more red blood cells so we can carry more oxygen in body - released when needed to increase blood oxygen levels

calcitriol

renin - stimulates series of steps that lead to production/release of aldosterone by adrenal cortex - renin works to increase sodium & water retention

Gonad Hormones

male - testes

• androgens (testosterone mainly)

• inhibin

female - ovaries

• estrogens

• progesterone

• inhibin

Hypothalamus

key endocrine organ that serves as link between neural and endocrine systems

connections between hypothalamus & pituitary gland

preganglionic neurons start in hypothalamus synapse on adrenal medulla

ADH

antidiuretic hormone

targets kidneys

works to reabsorb water (water retention)

by reabsorbing water, we can increase blood volume & pressure

OXT

oxytocin

targets mammary glands and uterus in females

• mammary glands - causes milk ejection

• uterus - wall contraction

acts on prostate gland and ductus deferens in males (leads to contractions of both structures)

Adrenal Gland

adrenal cortex (outer portion)

adrenal medulla (inner portion)

Pancreas

functions as both exocrine & endocrine gland

endocrine - relies on bloodstream to move hormones made by the pancreas

exocrine - relies on ducts within pancreas to move its products, mainly digestive enzymes

head of pancreas is tucked into the U shaped curve of the duodenum of small intestine

Kidney Role - low blood calcium ion levels

sunlight converts a hormone into vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) (inactive), which travels to kidneys

parathyroid hormone targets kidneys

kidney cells concert vit D3 to calcitriol (vit D) (active)

calcitriol released and causes small intestine to absorb calcium ions into bloodstream

raises calcium ion levels back to homeostatic conditions

Primary Functions of Urinary System

maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance

eliminating wastes from the body

regulating blood volume and blood pressure

maintaining acid/base balance in the body

Kidney Location

retroperitoneal space in abdominal cavity - behind digestive tract

PARTIALLY covered by ribs, not fully encased (ribs 11&12)

Large Structures that Comprise Urinary Tract (superior to inferior)

kidney - produces urine

ureter - transports urine toward urinary bladder

urinary bladder - temporarily stores urine prior to elimination

urethra - conducts urine to exterior; in males it also transports semen

Kidney Protective Layers

renal capsule

fascia

substantial amount of fat

Structures that Supply & Drain Kidneys

renal artery - supply

renal vein - drain

Hilum

threshold at which renal artery, renal vein, and ureter enter/exit the kidney

Relative positioning of calyces and renal pelvis relative to ureter

calyces and renal pelvis within kidney (superior to inferior = minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis)

ureter outside of kidney

Sequential Pathway of Urine Through Kidney

minor calyces —> major calyces —> renal pelvis —> ureter

Kidney Blood Flow

enters through renal arteries (and then to others, but not included in test)

ultimately leads to afferent arterioles

glomerulus - filtration

efferent arterioles

peritubular capillaries

venules

other things then to renal veins

Glomerulus

small capillary bed in close proximity to Bowman’s capsule of nephron

Nephron General Structure

fundamental filtering unit of a kidney

bowman’s capsule

proximal convoluted tubule

descending/ascending limbs of nephron loop

distal convoluted tubule

DCT + PCT + nephron loop = main parts of nephron

What does Nephron lead to

into collecting duct

nephron and collecting system are distinct structures in kidney

multiple collecting ducts eventually channel urine toward a major calyx

Pyelogram

diagnostic medical image showing main urinary structures

helps to visualize blockages and narrowing along parts of urinary tract

Detrusor Muscle

the smooth muscle in the wall of urinary bladder

Bladder Positioning

posterior to pubic symphysis

Urethra in Male vs Female

males have longer urethras

Internal Urethral Sphincter

smooth muscle

involuntary

External Urethral Sphincter

skeletal muscle

voluntary

Urinary System as we age

urethral sphincters lose muscle tone as we age - Incontinence (involuntary leakage of urine)

risk of infection goes up due to urine retention

reduced sensitivity to ADH

Axial Skeleton

bones of skull, sternum, ribs, vertebrae, sacrum & coccyx, and other associated bones of this part of human skeleton

Axial Musculature

must attach to features of axial skeleton

include those that can position the head

include those that can move and position spinal column

includes those that move ribcage

4 Axial Muscle Categories

head & neck muscles

vertebral column muscles

rib cage & body wall muscles (thoracic and wall muscles)

pelvic floor muscles

Muscles of Facial Expression

occipitofrontalis

orbicularis oculi

orbicularis oris

zygomaticus major/minor

platysma

Sternocleidomastoid

neck muscle

Uni- ipsilateral lat flexion; contralateral lat rotation

Bi- flexion/extension of neck (depends on position/context); forced breathing

Buccinator

cheeks - walls of mouth

helps circulate food around mouth as we chew

help generate suction as we drink through straw

keeps cheeks tight so we do not bite down on the inside of our cheeks

distends out when you see someone play trumpet

Extra-ocular muscles

Superior Rectus - draws gaze superiorly

Lateral Rectus - draws gaze laterally

Medial Rectus - draws gaze medially

Inferior Rectus - draws gaze inferiorly

Inferior Oblique - draws gaze laterally & superiorly

Superior Oblique - draws gaze laterally & inferiorly

Chewing Muscles

mastication

masseter, temporalis, pterygoids

for the most part, muscles of mastciation work to elevate mandible so that biting surfaces of teeth are brought closer together to crush food

Muscles of Tongue

will have “-glossus” in their names

help with mechanical breakdown of food along with swallowing

Muscles of Throat Wall

usualy have “-pharyngeus” in their names

work to move food from mouth into esophagus

Ipsilateral

same side

Controlateral

opposite side

Unilateral Contraction

one side contracts to a greater degree than the other

Bilateral Contraction

both sides pull equally

Suprahyoid Muscles

anterior/posterior digastric

mylohyoid

stylohyoid

elevate and fixate hyoid bone and larynx in neck

Infrahyoid Muscles

sternohyoid

sternothyroid

omohyoid

thyrohyoid

depress and fixate hyoid bone and larynx in neck

Erector Spinae Muscles

3 vertical columns of muscle running up and down the length of the spine

I Love Spine

iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis

iliocostalis column has segments attaching to portions of ribcage

bilateral - extension of vertrebral column; in practice, these muscles are actually working to reduce the movement of the spinal column

unilateral - lat flexion & ipsilateral rotation of vertebral column

Splenius Muscles

splenius capitis & cervicis

bilateral - extension of cervical spine

unilateral - ipsilateral rotation & lateral flexion of cervical spine

Scalene Muscles

deep aspect of anterior & lateral neck

3 segments - anterior, middle, posterior

can assist with forced inspirtion

help stabilize cervical spine or laterally flex it

roots of brachial plexus emerge between anterior and middle scalene muscles

Intercostal Muscles

thin layers of muscles found in-between adjacent ribs

main examples = external/internal intercostal

externals = forced inspiration

internals = forced expiration

Abdominal Wall Muscles

external oblique - controlateral rot, lat flex, flex of lumbar spine

internal oblique - ipsilateral rot, lat flex, flex of lumbar spine

transversus abdominis - compression of abdominal cavity - sucking in gut to tighten abdominal wall

rectus abdominis - flexion of lumbar spine, lat flex

Diaphragm

inspiration - contraction; descends to allow for lung expansion

expiration - relaxation; ascends to allow for lung contraction

Weakness of Pelvic Floor Muscles

can lead to urinary incontinence (urinary leakage)

Stability & Mobility

inverse relationship

more mobile = decreased stability or higher potential for instability

more secure = restrictive in terms of mobility

Main Purpose of Upper LImb

position and manipulate the hand

Phalanges

14 in each hand

3 phalanges in digits 2-5

2 in pollex/hallux

Metacarpals/tarsals

5 in each hand/foot

Carpal Bones

8 in each wrist

form base of carpal tunnel (passageway at wrist which tendons and median. nerve travel through)

arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones each

proximal row - lateral to medial

• scaphoid

• lunate

• triquetrum

• pisiform

distal row - lateral to medial

• trapezium

• trapezoid

• capitate

• hamate

Tarsal Bones

5 in each ankle

Clavicle

acts as a strut to hold upper limb in proper position and to space it away from trunk of body

usually injured because of fall onto an outstretched hand

Sternal end: medial end

Acromial end: lateral end

Conoid tubercle: near the acromial end

Costal tuberosity: near the sternal end

Sternoclavicular Joint

joint that unites the axial and appendicular skeletal structures

Scapula

sits in upper back (shoulder blade)

forms bony structure of shoulder

acromion process, spine, glenoid fossa

depression/elevation, retraction/protraction, superior/inferior rotation

Distinction of Arm, Forearm, Hand

Arm - humerus

Forearm - ulna & radius

Hand - carpals, metacarpals (I-V), phalanges

Humerus

only bone of arm

head of humerus faces medially

olecranon fossa faces posteriorly

lateral epicondyle & medial epicondyle (funny bone)

surgical neck

Olecranon Process of Ulna

hooks into humerus creating elbow hinge

Radius

thumb side

can rotate around ulna to create supination/pronation in wrist area

Ulna

pinky side

fixed at elbow

Numbering of Digits

thumb = 1

pinky = 5

General Properties of Appendicular Muscles

help with mvmt of upper & lower limbs

work to maintain posture and balance in body

work as shock absorbers which distribute these external forces

reinforce structure of joints

Muscles that Position the Pectoral Girdle

originate on axial skeleton

insert on clavicle and scapula

trapezius - elevate/retract/depress/superior rotation

rhomboid - retraction/inferior rotation

levator scapulae

pectoralis minor

serratus anterior - protraction/superior rotation

subclavius

Muscles That Move the Arm

originate on pectoral girdle and thoracic cage

insert on humerus

deltoid - flex/abd/ext of arm

supraspinatous - initiates abd of arm; rot cuff

infraspinatous - lat rot of arm; rot cuff

subscapularis - medial rot of arm; rot cuff

teres major - ext/add & medial rot of arm

teres minor - lat rot of arm; rot cuff

coracobrachialis - flex/add of arm

pectoralis major - add/horiz add/flex/medial rot of arm

latissimus dorsi - ext/add/medial rot of arm

Muscles that move the Forearm and Hand

primarily originate on pectoral girdle and humerus

insert on radius, ulna, and/or carpals

Extrinsic Muscles of Hands & Fingers

primarily originate on humerus, radius, and ulna

insert on metacarpals and phalanges

Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand

originate primary on carpal & metacarpal bones

insert on phalanges

Supination & Pronation Actions

occur at proximal and distal radioulnar joints (primarily the distal radioulnar joint)

pronator muscles found in anterior forearm

biceps brachii = powerful supinator

supinator muscle wraps behind elbow

Line of Action

muscles move along these lines

directionality of muscle fibers indicates direction along which muscle pulls

Deltoid Actions

abduction of arm at shoulder

posterior/scapular delt = extension & external rotation

anterior/clavicular delt = flexion & internal rotation

Spurt Muscles

insert close to joint of action

Shunt Muscles

insert far away from joint of action

Agonist

main muscle responsible for creating a movement

Antagonist

main muscles that do opposite of desired action

Stabilizer

fixate some part of body so that agonist can work efficiently/properly

Synergist

assist agonist in performing movement

Pectoral Girdle

bony connection of scapula with its adjacent collarbone

think about shoulder blade and its connection to neighboring collarbone

Rotator Cuff Muscles

SITS

supraspinatous

infraspinatous

teres minor

subscapularis

Pectoralis Major

adduction of arm

flexion of arm

internal rotation of arm

Flexor Muscles

anterior compartments of upper limb

Extensor Muscle

posterior compartments of upper limb