November 2026

Comprehensive flashcards covering key concepts from physics and psychology for MCAT preparation.

Logarithm

A mathematical function that is the inverse of exponentiation, written as logb(y) = x, meaning that b raised to the power of x equals y.

Scientific method

A systematic approach to research that involves formulating hypotheses, testing them, and providing results for further analysis.

FINER mnemonic

A framework for formulating research questions, asking if research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant.

Equipoise

A state of genuine uncertainty regarding which treatment is better for a study participant in clinical research.

Basic science research

Research that occurs in a laboratory setting and does not involve human subjects.

Translational research

Research that connects basic science discoveries to clinical applications.

Independent variable

The variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured or studied in an experiment.

Positive control

A group in an experiment that is expected to show a specific change due to a known treatment result.

Negative control

A group in an experiment where no response is expected.

Validity

The degree to which the measurements of an experiment are accurate and true.

Reliability

Consistency of results when an experiment is repeated under the same conditions.

Research population

A well-defined collection of individuals or objects with similar characteristics for a study.

Research sample

A group selected from a larger population for the purpose of measurement.

Internal validity

The extent to which an experiment is performed well, avoiding confounding variables.

External validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to the larger population.

Within-subject design

An experimental design where all participants are exposed to every treatment or condition.

Between-group design

An experimental design that tests different groups of subjects with different factors.

Statistical significance

A result that is unlikely to have occurred by chance, indicating a meaningful effect.

Clinical significance

The relevance or importance of experimental findings to patient care or outcomes.

Cohort study

A type of longitudinal study that samples a cohort at intervals over time.

Cross-sectional study

An observational research type that analyzes data collected at one point in time across a sample population.

Case-control study

A type of observational study that compares two existing groups differing in outcome based on a presumed causal attribute.

Selection bias

Bias introduced by improper randomization in selecting individuals or groups for analysis.

Detection bias

Bias that arises when professionals inconsistently search for outcomes in certain populations.

Hawthorne effect

The phenomenon where subjects alter their behavior simply because they know they are being studied.

Social desirability bias

A response bias where survey respondents answer in a way that is favorable to social norms.

Placebo effect

Improvement in a patient's condition resulting from the expectation of a treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Confounding variable

A variable that influences both the dependent and independent variables, creating false associations.

Mediating variable

A variable that explains the relationship between two other variables.

Moderating variable

A variable that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables.

Mean

The average value in a set of numbers.

Median

The middle number in a sorted set of data.

Mode

The number that appears most frequently in a data set.

Standard normal distribution

A normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Skewed distributions

Distributions with different means, medians, and modes.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two different modes appearing as distinct peaks.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest numbers in a data set.

Interquartile range

The difference between the 75th and 25th percentiles in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure that quantifies the variation or dispersion of a set of data values.

Outlier

A data point that differs significantly from other observations.

Histogram

A chart representing a frequency distribution where the height of bars indicates observed frequencies.

Slope

The ratio of the rise to the run in a linear graph.

Independent event

An event whose occurrence does not affect the probability of another event.

Dependent event

An event whose occurrence is affected by the outcome of another event.

Mutually exclusive events

Events that cannot occur at the same time.

Exhaustive outcomes

A set of outcomes that covers all possible options.

Hypothesis tests

Methods that use known distributions to determine if a null hypothesis can be rejected.

p-value

A statistic that helps determine the significance of experimental findings compared to a significance level.

Confidence interval

An estimated range of values likely to include an unknown population parameter.

Ecological validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-life settings.

Neurons

The basic working unit of the brain, designed to transmit information.

Reflex arcs

Interneurons that relay information while routing it to the brain.

Peripheral nervous system

The nervous tissue and fibers outside the central nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the nervous system responsible for fight or flight responses.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Part of the nervous system responsible for rest and digest functions.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in focus, motivation, and movement coordination.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.

Cortisol

A stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex.

Hindbrain

Brain region including the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation.

Midbrain

Brain region consisting of the colliculi, tegmentum, and cerebral peduncles.

Forebrain

Region of the brain including thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex.

Thalamus

The brain's relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain responsible for homeostasis and regulating basic functions.

Basal ganglia

Brain structure involved in smooth movements and postural stability.

Limbic system

Brain region involved in emotions, memories, and arousal.

Amygdala

Brain structure associated with fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Brain structure that regulates emotions and memory formation.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of neural tissue in the cerebrum, responsible for higher brain functions.

Parietal lobe

Brain region associated with touch, pressure, and spatial processing.

Frontal lobe

Brain region associated with executive function, impulse control, and speech.

Occipital lobe

Brain region primarily responsible for vision.

Temporal lobe

Brain region associated with sound, speech perception, memory, and emotion.

Left cerebral hemisphere

Brain region associated with analytic thinking, language, and logic.

Right cerebral hemisphere

Brain region associated with intuition, creativity, and spatial processing.

Primitive reflexes

Innate reflexes like rooting, moro, babinski, and grasping seen in infants.

Rooting reflex

The reflex where an infant turns their head toward a stimulus.

Moro reflex

A reflex where an infant extends arms in response to a falling sensation.

Babinski reflex

The reflex where an infant’s toe extends when the sole is stroked.

Grasping reflex

A reflex where an infant grabs objects placed in their hands.

Sensory receptors

Nerves that respond to stimuli from the environment.

Sensory ganglia

Enlargements along peripheral nerves that transmit signals to the CNS.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.

Threshold of conscious perception

Minimum energy to create a noticeable signal.

Difference threshold

Minimum difference in stimuli required to perceive a change.

Weber’s law

Principle that the just noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to its magnitude.

Signal detection theory

Concept that examines how factors like experience influence stimulus perception.

Cornea

The transparent front part of the eye that gathers and filters light.

Iris

The part of the eye that controls pupil size.

Lens

The structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina.

Aqueous humor

Fluid that maintains the shape of the eyeball and fills the space between cornea and lens.

Retina

The sensory membrane lining the back of the eye.

Rods

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect light and dark.

Cones

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue that enhances depth perception.

Edge-sharpening

A process whereby horizontal and amacrine cells enhance the perception of edges.

Magnocellular cells

Neurons that are specialized for processing motion.

Parvocellular cells

Neurons that process shape.

Parallel processing

The ability to process color, form, and motion simultaneously.