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Who was Niccolò Machiavelli
Took over when the last Medici lost power, Machiavelli took over (he was a secretary). However, he was kicked out by the Spanish and in his exile the Medici rose back to power.
He wrote books on the growth of political power as a way to store and maintain order = The Prince.
Most of his books were based on his knowledge on ancient Rome and Italy’s political issues.
Who was Baldassarre Castiglione?
Wrote The Book of the Courier which described the ideals for landowning nobles.
The book stated that nobles must be militarily active, engaging in creative pursuits, have impeccable character, gracefully showcase their talent while being humble
Who was Michelangelo?
Michelangelo, an accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect; influenced by Neoplatonism.
He painted the Sistene Chapel, Creation of Adam depiction, and David, the 14-foot figure.
What were the main elements of Italian Renaissance art?
The images focused on lighting, movement, anatomical structure, and geometric perspective.
The backgrounds are elaborate and had classical themes. Each person is different, highling individualism.
The beauty is also idealized, the standard.
Explain the political, intellectual, and cultural effects of the Italian Renaissance
Politically, it brought about significant changes through city-states like Florence, Venice, and Rome(became centers of art, learning, and trade). These cities often fostered the arts and saw the rise of powerful and influential families.
Intellectually, the Renaissance sparked a revival of classical learning, with humanism at its core, emphasizing the value of education, individualism, and the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts. This movement contributed to advancements in many fields, including art, science, and literature.
Culturally, the Italian Renaissance produced some of the most celebrated artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, who created beautiful masterpieces. It also helped the spread of Renaissance ideas and artistic techniques throughout Europe, shaping Western civilization.
Explain the role and impact of the Medici.
The Medici family played a major role in the Italian Renaissance, especially in Florence. They were prominent in the arts, creating an environment where artists, scholars, and scientists thrived.
The Medici's power helped fund artists like Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo, contributing significantly to cultural and artistic achievements.
Politically, the Medici family produced many influential figures who served as rulers of Florence and even Pope Leo X, further showing their power and influence.
Bankers
What were the main elements of Northern Renaissance art?
The images had a linear perspective, natural inspiration, very realistic elements, oil paintings, illumination, and religious themes.
The art focused also on peasant lives.
Explain how Renaissance ideas were developed, maintained, and changed as the Renaissance spread to northern Europe. Be sure to highlight differences between the Italian and Northern Renaissance.
As the Renaissance spread to the north from its Italian origins, it went through many changes. The Italian Renaissance was centered on classical Greco-Roman culture, the Northern Renaissance combined a strong religious and intellectual component.
The printing press was created in the north by Johannes Gutenberg with made the Northern Renaissance more accessible to a wider audience. Unlike the focus on individualism and secular subjects in the Italian Renaissance, the Northern Renaissance emphasized the collective and religious themes, leading to much more religious art.
However, both ideas were often combined, as Northern artists would migrate to the Italian region, and incorporate both styles into their own artwork.
What were some of the improvements in navigational technology?
Compass - Improved in the 19th century; helped the sailors feel more confidant
Sternpost rudder - Helped with turning and steering the ship so people don't have to row
Portolani - Charts made by medevial navigators and mathematicians
Quadrant and astrolabe - Determines what latitude sailors were at, Allowed travelers to calculate their location based on the position of the sun and stars in relation to the horizon.
Lateen rig - Triangular sails that could pick up lighter winds so they boat was always moving; more efficient
Spanish in the New World
South America was thriving before the Spanish arrived. The civilizations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca were devastated by the Spanish’s technology and disease.
Queen Isabella implemented the Spanish encomienda system, allowing conquering Spaniards to collect tribute and use indigenous peoples as laborers in exchange for protection and spiritual care. In practice, the encomienda system led to widespread abuse and exploitation of the indigenous population.
Bartolomé de Las Casas advocated for them, got rid of the encomienda, and provided more protection for the indigenous people.
Portuguese in the Indian Ocean World
In 1419, Prince Henry of Portugal founded a navigator's school on the southwestern coast of Portugal. Portuguese fleets started to explore the African coast in search of gold, but instead brought back black Africans, starting the slave trade. Portuguese expeditions aimed to take over the spice trade, resulting in naval battles.
A Portuguese armada defeated Turkish and Indian ships, imposing a blockade on the entrance to the Red Sea.
The plan was to cut off the spice trade to Muslim rulers in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque established port facilities at Goa, making it the Portuguese headquarters in the region.
In 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca on the Malay peninsula, weakening Arab control of the spice trade by massacring the local population.
The Portuguese expanded their expeditions to China and the Spice Islands, where they gained control of the spice trade.
The Portuguese succeeded through their naval technology, armaments, and seamanship; their effective use of technology.
Dutch in the East Indies/Asia
The Dutch seized Portuguese forts and pushed them out of the spice trade, and occupied key coastal forts, including Malacca, occupying trade routes through the Indian Ocean.
They established control over areas like Ceylon and Java and pepper plantations led to high profits. By the late eighteenth century, the Dutch had nearly complete control over the Indonesian archipelago.
Gunpowder and guns impact on military technology
Gunpowder had, by the end of the 14th century completely changed the face of warfare in Europe and would play a significant and destructive role during the age of exploration and colonial expansion, which resulted in much death and bloodshed with the discovery of the Americas and later colonisation by the European.
Who was Jean-Basptiste Colbert?
Colbert's central principle was that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. Drawing on the ideas of mercantilism, he believed state intervention was needed to secure the largest part of limited resources.
To accumulate gold, a country always had to sell more goods abroad than it bought.
Explain Jesuit activities
The Society of Jesus, Jesuits, who became the chief instrument of the Catholic Reformation; founded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola.
The Jesuits pursued three major activities. They established highly disciplined schools, borrowing freely from humanist schools for their educational methods; youth education was important to them, and they became the most famous educators in Europe.
They also sought to spread the religion, so Francis Xavier spread Catholic Christianity to India and Japan, but died of fever before making it to China. Although conversion effects did not last in Japan, they were more long-lasting in China, spread by Italian Matteo Ricci.
He drew connections between Christian morality and Confucian ethics; this traveling to the East intrigued the Europeans (they were impressed by Chinese Civilization).
They also spread to Germany, eastern Europe, and Poland.
These technological advancements collectively provided European explorers and colonizers with the means to navigate the globe, overcome natural obstacles, and interact with distant cultures.
Describe and explain the significance of the Middle Passage.
The Middle Passage was a brutal journey, with high death rates due to cramped conditions and diseases, which only increased the number of slaves being imported.
African slaves born in the New World had lower mortality rates, but most slave owners believed buying a new slave was easier than raising one. Most African slaves were initially prisoners of war, and local African rulers were often involved in the trade
Payment to the slave merchant was often made in goods, such as textiles, furniture, and guns. Violence increased greatly.
Explain the causes for and the development of the slave trade
Slave trade in Africa was not new, it was even in the Middle East with domestic servants. At first, the Portuguese simply replaced European slaves with African ones The discovery of the Americas and sugarcane increased the demand for African labor; they were brought to Brazil and the Carribeans because African soil wasn’t suitable for the sugarcane.
Slavery became part of the triangular trade, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Even in Africa, local rulers saw the slave trade as income, so they raided nearby villages for unsuspecting victims.
Despite humanitarian sentiments, European society viewed black slaves as inferior, and abolition efforts only gained traction in the late 18th century.
What were important Atlantic port cities?
Why were they important?
London - In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was the busiest port in the world, with wharves extending continuously along the Thames for 11 miles (18 km), and over 1,500 cranes handling 60,000 ships per year.
Bristol - Bristol, a port city in south-west England, was involved in the transatlantic slave trade. Bristol's part in the trade was prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries as the city's merchants used their position to gain involvement. It is estimated that over 500,000 enslaved African people were traded by Bristol merchants.
Amsterdam - New institutions like the Bank of Amsterdam and the Amsterdam Bourse (Exchange) were created to meet the changing financial needs.Amsterdam and its exchange emerged as the hub of the European business world, replacing Antwerp.
Antwerp - As a port city Antwerp had good access to the major maritime trades of Northwestern Europe, while having access to a large hinterland via a large river network.
What moved from Europe to the Americas?
Wheat, Cattle, Horses, Pigs, Sheep, Smallpox, Measles
What moved from the Americas to Europe?
Tomatoes, Potatoes, Squash, Corn, Tobacco, Turkeys
Explain the economic impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks
European powers such as Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands, used mercantilism for accumulating wealth and resources from their colonies. They gathered resources like precious metals, spices, and agricultural products, fueling economic growth in Europe.
The establishment of global trade networks linked Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia, assisting the exchange of goods and ideas.
Plantation economies in the Americas, often relying on slave labor, became necessary for economic growth.
These colonies created new markets for European goods, transfering technology and innovations.
This led to modern globalization, but with exploitation, inequality, and the displacement of indigenous societies.
Explain the social and cultural impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
The tension between Europeans and indigenous populations(in Americas, Africa, and Asia) led to the interaction of different cultures, languages, and traditions.
This exchange was known as the Columbian Exchange, and it introduced new foods, animals, and crops to different parts of the world; transforming diets and agriculture.
It wasn’t all good however, because the introduction of new diseases like smallpox devastated indigenous populations. European colonialism forced their values, languages, and religions on indigenous peoples, getting rid of their own cultural heritage.
Cultures have been able to mix however. Enslaved Africans contributed to the culture of the Americas through music, dance, and religious traditions. Overtime, this cultural exchange would spread into later societies, creating a mized global culture as we see today.
The Dutch East India Company
Innovations in banking and finance
The Dutch East India Company(a trading company) settled at the Cape of Good Hope as a base, leading to the formation of the Boer community(Dutch farmers).
The Dutch East India Company was also important in that it was active in bringing European ideas and technology to Asia. It also expanded European exploration and opened up new areas to colonization and trade through their search for access to the Spice Trade.
They opened up the opportunity to begin the slave trade.
The British East India Company
Innovations in banking and finance
Sir Robert Clive, representing the British East India Company, played a crucial role in British success in India through his military genius. The British defeated the French and expanded their control into Bengal.
In 1757, the British East India Company won the Battle of Plassey, allowing them to impose and collect taxes from millions of people.
During the Seven Years’ War, the British forced the French to withdraw completely from India.
This expansion marked a significant step in the gradual transfer of India to the British East India Company and later to the British Crown as a colony.
Enclosure Movement
The Enclosure Movement was a push in the 18th and 19th centuries to take land that had formerly been owned in common by all members of a village, or at least available to the public for grazing animals and growing food, and change it to privately owned land, usually with walls, fences or hedges around it.
Restricted use of the village common
Enclosure, or the process that ended traditional rights on common land formerly held in the open field system and restricted the use of land to the owner, is one of the causes of the Agricultural Revolution and a key factor behind the labor migration from rural areas to gradually industrializing cities.
Enclosed land was under control of the farmer, who was free to adopt better farming practices.
Following enclosure, crop yields and livestock output increased while at the same time productivity increased enough to create a surplus of labor.
The increased labor supply is considered one of the factors facilitating the Industrial Revolution.
Freehold Tenure
Widespread land ownership society so farms were smaller, resulting in a demand for agricultural labor.
Who were the new economic elites during the commercial evolution?
Italian merchant princes
Nobles of the robe in France
How were sanitation problems caused during the commercial evolution?
Overpopulation
Employment
Poverty
Crime
Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their economic effects from 1450-1648.
1450-1648 sparked European overseas trade networks, leading to exploration, colonization, and the gathering of valuable resources from the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
European merchants and trading companies rose on the global stage, helping to drive economic growth through international commerce.
New crops were brough back from the New World, such as potatoes and maize, which started agricultural productivity and population growth.
Better agricultural techniques combined with commercial agricultural also improved crop yields.
This, combined with capitalist economic systems, led to thee rise of Europe as an economic powerhouse.
However, it included the displacement of indigenous populations, abuse of enslaved labor, and ecological changes resulting from new crops and agricultural practices.
Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their social effects from 1450-1648
Overseas trade networks, exploration, and colonization increased greatly, leading to urbanization due to the growth of trading centers and port cities grew(cultural exchange and diversity from this).
The rise of capitalism and merchant classes wavered from traditional social hierarchies as wealthy merchants and entrepreneurs gained influence and power.
New crops from the Americas improved food and diets, which contributed to population growth.
Labor systems grew greatly however, as indentured labor and the transatlantic slave trade became widespread.
Predestination
Protestant vs Catholic Views
Calvin(begun Calvanism views = banch of Protestantism) believed in the absolute sovereignty of God and predestination. It was the idea that some were to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate); he never said this had anything to do with wealth.
The practical psychological effect of predestination was to give some later Calvinists an unshakable conviction that they were doing God’s work on earth.
This differs from Catholic views, as Catholics believed that all had a chance to get into Heaven as long as they had faith and did good works.
Salvation
Protestant vs Catholic Views
The Protestants and Catholics disagreed over whether Christians attain salvation in heaven through faith in God alone, or through a combination of faith and good works.
Generally speaking, Martin Luther and other Protestant reformers in the 16th century espoused the belief that salvation is attained only through faith in Jesus and his atoning sacrifice on the cross (sola fide).
While Catholicism taught that salvation comes through a combination of faith plus good works (e.g., living a virtuous life and seeking forgiveness for sins).
Importance of Scripture (versus priests who interpret Scripture)
Protestant vs Catholic Views
While Protestants only view the Scriptures as authoritative, the Catholic Catechism clearly states that Church does not derive its certainty about all truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
In Protestantism, there is a strong emphasis on the authority of the Bible as the ultimate source of divine truth. Protestants believe that individuals can read and interpret the Bible for themselves, without necessarily relying on clerical intermediaries.
Catholicism places a higher significance on the role of priests and the Church hierarchy in interpreting and guiding the understanding of Scripture. Catholics believe that the Pope and the bishops play a crucial role in authoritatively interpreting the Bible, ensuring consistency, and guiding the faithful.
Explain how and why religious belief and practices changed from 1450-1648.
The most significant reasoning for change was the Protestant Reformation started by Martin Luther in 1517.
He challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, which led to the rise of Protestant denominations and the changing of religious practices. Religious conflicts and wars also begin, such as the Thirty Years' War, as religious and political authorities clashed.
The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, reaffirming its doctrines and practices.
With that, the era of exploration and colonization spread European traditions to other parts of the world, spreading Christianity.
The Scientific Revolution chnaged many perspectives on spirituality and the natural world.
All these changes eventually resulted in diverse religious beleifs and practices.
What was the Peace of Augsburg and when was it created?
1555; The choice between Lutheranism and Catholicism was accepted as equal
Huguenots
French Calvanists were called Huguenots, coming from all levels of society, including the house of Bourbon, which stood next to the Valois ruling the southern French kingdom of Navarre.
Puritans
The Puritans, inspired by Calvinism, sought to remove Catholic elements from the Church of England.
Nobles in Poland
Poland emerged as one of the main terrains of struggle between the Protestant Reformation movement and the Catholic Church's counter-reformation.
Lutheranism was popular among German-descent townsfolk, and Calvinism among the nobility
Vernacular Bible
The technology of printing fused with the reformers' emphasis on the authority of scripture to make the Bible available and legible to audiences of unprecedented size.
Catholics did not believe that the common people should be able to read and interpret the Bible on their own.
Describe the major beliefs of Calvinists and Anabaptists
How were both received?
Calvinists were followers of John Calvin who held several key beliefs, including predestination, a strong emphasis on God's sovereignty, a strict moral code, and a structured, hierarchical church organization.
Calvinism received mixed reactions; it gained influence in some regions, particularly in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and parts of Scotland, where it contributed to the development of Reformed Protestant traditions.
Anabaptists followed the Anabaptist movement who believed in adult baptism, as only adults could choose God as their savior(voluntary church membership). They also believed in the separation of church and state.
They were killed all over because their ideas challenged the religious and political authorities of the time. Anabaptists were usually considered radical and were hated by both Catholic and Protestant authorities.
This caused for the need of forced migration to more tolerant regions to form their own communities.
St. Teresa of Avila
A nun of the Carmelite order who experienced mystical visions. She claimed it was her union with God and it would lead to an active life of service on behalf of her Catholic faith.
Ursulines
The Ursulines, a new order of nuns founded in Italy in 1535, focused their attention on establishing schools for the education of girls.
Roman Inquisition
Caraffa persuaded Paul III to establish the Roman Inquisition or Holy Office in 1542 to ferret out doctrinal errors, meaning no compromise with Protestantism.
Index of Prohibited Books
Cardinal Caraffa was chosen pope as Paul IV, becoming the “first true pope of the Catholic Counter-Reformation,” through the increased power of the Inquisition he created the Index of Forbidden Books, a list of books that Catholics were not allowed to read. It had the works of Protestant theologians as well as authors considered “unwholesome,” including Erasmus.
Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the Catholic Church from 1450-1648
The Church's purpose in European society was providing spiritual guidance, education, and stability. However, this significantly changed.
The Catholic Church faced many issues such as the Protestant Reformation, which led to the breaking of the Christian faith and the arrival of new religious movements.
The Council of Trent, a major response to the Reformation, brought reforms to the Church and confirmed its doctrine.
The Church's role in political affairs grew even as it struggled to maintain authority, which resulted in alliances shifts and conflicts with European states.
The period both strengthened and questioned the Catholic Church's position in European society.
El Greco
Mannerism = highly self-conscious and artificial, emphasizing the artist's virtuosity and stylishness.
Its intellectual basis appealed to El Greco, who enjoyed the company of scholars and, himself, wrote treatises on art and architecture.
Artemisia Gentileschi
Artemisia Gentileschi was an Italian painter who is considered one of the most accomplished artists of the Baroque period.
Despite being overshadowed by many of her male contemporaries, she created incredible paintings from a female perspective – something that many of her peers could not do.
Gian Bernini
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian artist, arguably the greatest sculptor of the 17th century, known for having developed the Baroque style of sculpture. Bernini is also known for his outstanding architectural works.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini created Baroque art and architecture with his swirling lines and larger-than-life sculptures that featured religious and mythological figures.
The Baroque style features careful attention to light and shadow, curved lines, and spirals that create a sense of movement.
Peter Paul Rubens
Sir Peter Paul Rubens is a world-renowned Flemish Baroque artist of the seventeenth century.
Categorized as an Old Master within the canon of art history, his work is characterized by a high concentration of color, movement, and form.
Explain how and why artistic expression changed from 1450-1648.
Like the Renaissance, this was a time of renewal in classical antiquity. Artists sought to achieve naturalism and perspective, resulting in more realistic depictions of reality.
Techniques were devloped, such as linear perspective. allowing for convincing depictions of space and light. Like most things, the printing spread artistic ideas and knowledge, reaching a wider audience.
Religious themes remained prevalent, but artists also started to explore secular subjects and the human experience.
These changes in art were caused by the desire to celebrate human creativity, knowledge, and individuality.
Wars of Religion
The French Wars of Religion began in 1562 when the Duke of Guise massacred Huguenots at Vassy.
The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre in August 1572(Catholic and Calvinist parties had apparently been reconciled) saw the killing of Huguenot leaders in Paris.
But the Guise family persuaded the king and his mother, Catherine de’ Medici, that this gathering of Huguenots posed a threat to them.
The massacre, orchestrated by the Guise family, led to three days of violence, leaving thousands of Huguenots dead.
Henry of Navarre managed to survive by promising to turn Catholic The conflict continued, and a "Holy League" of ultra-Catholics aimed to exterminate heresy and replace king Henry III with Henry of Guise.
War of the Three Henries
The War of the Three Henries (1588–1589) saw King Henry III align with Henry of Navarre against the Catholic Holy League.
Henry III assassinated the Duke of Guise to remove his influence, but he was later assassinated by a monk.
Henry of Navarre claimed the throne and converted to Catholicism(so he would be accpeted), ending the French Wars of Religion with his coronation in 1594.
Problems continued until The Edict of Nantes in 1598 acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion but granted Huguenots rights to worship in certain places and maintain fortified towns.
Valois
The Valois were very Catholic and ran the church, so the church didn’t look into Protastanism
The Guise
The extreme Catholic party—known as the ultra-Catholics—favored strict opposition to the Huguenots and was led by the Guise family.
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