biology compilation

includes: 2 seperate digestion vers. + cell transport + tissues + communicable diseases + organisms/adaptations

substrate

Substance broken down by enzymes during digestion.

salivary amylase

Enzyme that converts starch into glucose.

oesophagus

Tube connecting mouth to stomach for food transport.

protease

Enzyme that breaks proteins into amino acids.

simple sugars

Basic carbohydrates like glucose from starch breakdown.

benedict's reagent

Test for simple sugars; turns orange/brick red.

small, soluble

State molecules must be in for digestion.

large intestine

Absorbs water from undigested food.

enzyme

Catalyst that speeds up biochemical reactions.

mouth

Initial digestion site; food chewed and mixed with saliva.

stomach

Digestion organ with acidic pH and protease pepsin.

lipase

Enzyme that breaks down lipids into fatty acids.

amylase

Enzyme that breaks down starch; includes salivary and pancreatic types.

villi

Tiny structures in small intestine that increase absorption area.

small intestine

Primary digestion site with enzymes like lipase and amylase.

kinetic energy

Energy related to heat and reaction rates.

mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of food through churning.

glandular

Tissue type that secretes substances like saliva.

bile

Liquid that emulsifies fats and neutralizes stomach acid.

starch

Complex carbohydrate broken down into glucose.

active site

Enzyme region that binds to the substrate.

pancreas

Organ producing enzymes for digestion.

denature

Loss of enzyme function due to unfavorable conditions.

rate of reaction

Frequency of reactions; influenced by substrate conditions.

muscular

Tissue type involved in food churning in stomach.

emulsify

Process of breaking fats into smaller droplets.

proteins

Complex molecules made of amino acids.

pH

Measure of acidity or alkalinity in solutions.

liver + gallbladder

Liver produces bile; gallbladder stores it.

optimum

Ideal conditions for enzyme activity.

concentration

Amount of substance relative to others.

surface area

Greater area enhances reaction rates and diffusion.

lipids

Fats broken down into glycerol and fatty acids.

glycerol

One product of lipid breakdown.

blood supply

Enhances digestion by maintaining concentration gradients.

salivary glands

Glands that produce saliva for digestion.

connective

Tissue type that supports and connects body structures.

temperature

Heat level affecting reaction rates and enzyme function.

pH 2

Approximate pH level of the stomach.

fatty acids

Components of lipids produced during digestion.

amino acid

Building blocks of proteins.

diffusion

Movement of particles from high to low concentration.

Diffusion

random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

what substances diffuse in and out of cells

Water, glucose, amino acids, oxygen and waste products urea and carbon dioxide. (urea has been unmentioned in booklet but it was in the seneca so)

temperature effects on diffusion

temperature increase= diffusion increase

concentration gradient effects on diffusion

higher concentration = diffusion speed increase

surface area effects on diffusion

greater surface area : volume ratio = greater speed of diffusion

how to calc surface area : volume ratio

calc surface area then volume then simplify

how are small intestine, lungs, plant roots and leaves adapted for diffusion

big surface area : volume ratio

how is an exchange surface adapted

big surface area : volume ratio

osmosis

like diffusion but water through a partially permeable membrane

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

substrate

The thing broken down by enzymes. Its shape is complementary to them (because the enzymes do that, not the substrate).

Salivary amylase

breaks down starch to glucose. optimum pH of around ~7/8. Optimum temp. around 32/38 according to google. Found in the mouth.

oesophagus

Tube connecting the mouth to the stomach

protease

Enzyme responsible for breaking down proteins into amino acids. Example is pepsin.

simple sugars

Includes glucose. Broken down from carbs like starch. Tested for with benedict's reagent. BR in excess, at 80C. BR goes orange/brick reddish. Carbohydrase

small, soluble

State molecules need to be in for digestion

Large intestine

absorbs water from food

enzyme

A catalyst - speeds up reactions. In this case breaks down food into smaller usable particles.

mouth

First stage of digestion. Food chewed into smaller pieces, and first stages of digestion happen through saliva (contains salivary amylase).

stomach

Connected to oesophagus and small intestine. Has a pH of around ~2. contains glandular, muscular and epithelial tissues. contains pepsin (protease).

lipase

Substance that breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Assisted by bile. No specific example, just lipase. optimum pH of around ~7/8 and optimum temp. around 32/38. Found in small intestine

amylase

2 types - pancreatic and salivary, though unspecified is normally pancreatic. breaks down starch to glucose. optimum pH of around ~7/8. Optimum temp. around 32/38 according to google. Found in the mouth and small intestine

villi

Tiny hair-like structures that increase surface area in small intestine. Microvilli on top. Good blood flow, thin walls (short diffusion distance).

Small intestine

Site of much of digestion. Larger of intestines. Contains villi. Contains trypsin (protease), pancreatic amylase (carbohydrase), lipase (lipids). has a pH of around ~7/8.

Kinetic energy

Tied directly to heat + rate of reaction. Higher heat = higher kinetic energy = higher RoR. energy particles have to move (and crash into other particles, causing reactions)

Mechanical digestion

Digestion from churning food with muscular tissues.

Glandular

Type of tissue that secretes substances. eg. salivary glands secrete saliva. part of digestion

Bile

Liquid that emulsifies lipids, increasing their surface area, and change the strongly acidic conditions of stomach to neutral conditions fit for small intestine.

starch

Complex molecule digested by carbohydrases like amylase into glucose. Tested for with iodine, which goes blue/black with starch present. A carbohydrate.

active site

The part of the enzyme capable of breaking down the substrate. Complementary shape to substrate. Changes shape when temperature too high/pH incompatible.

pancreas

Produces and stores enzymes to be released when needed.

denature

In the wrong conditions (too much heat, wrong pH) this happens to enzymes. Changes physical shape of active site, meaning enzyme can no longer break down the substrate.

Rate of reaction

how often reactions happen. Increased surface area of substrate, amount of substrate, heat (kinetic energy) etc. all impact this. In this case how fast enzymes digest substrates. Generally the higher the better for the organism - getting most out of food that way

muscular

Type of tissue found within stomach, for example, in digestion. Churns food.

emulsify

Where lipids are surrounded by bile, breaking them into smaller droplets with greater surface area, increasing rate of digestion. Forms an emulsion.

proteins

Complex molecules made up of amino acids, digested by proteases like pepsin. Tested for with biuret reagent, if solution goes a lilac/mauve protein is present.

pH

Measure of hydrogen ions within a solution. More usefully, measure of acidity/alkalinity of solution. 7 is neutral, above is alkaline, below is acidic. Tested with litmus paper, which changes to a warmer tone if acidic (reds as most, yellow/green as mildly acidic) and cooler if alkaline (deep purple/blue for potent, more blue/turquoise for mild)

Liver + gallbladder

Liver produces bile that's stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine when needed

optimum

Best conditions for something (in this case, enzymes) to work at. In this case, refers to temp. and pH. Straying from optimum can have adverse effects (like denaturing of enzymes)

concentration

Amount of a substance in ratio to other substances or something idk, you know already. Higher is better because more rapid collisions all that.

surface area

High surface area helps increase rate of reaction for 2 reasons - substrates having greater surface area allows for more frequent successful collisions, and higher surface area for broken down molecules to diffuse into allows faster rate of diffusion there

Lipids

Fats + oils. Broken down into glycerol and fatty acids by lipase. Forms big puddles, so is broken up by bile to increase surface area.

glycerol

One component lipids are broken down into, with fatty acids.

blood supply

factor that helps optimise digestion - good blood supply carries away molecules that diffuse through to stop them diffusing back and keep up a steep concentration gradient to maximise speed

salivary glands

Produce saliva

connective

Type of tissue that connects things

temperature

Amount of heat//kinetic energy. Higher means more rapid collisions and so more successful collisions, but if it exceeds a threshold it will denature enzymes.

pH 2

Approximate pH of the stomach.

fatty acids

One component lipids are broken down into, with glycerol.

amino acid

component proteins are broken down into

diffusion

Random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. eg digested food diffusing into bloodstream

health

A state of physical and mental well-being

pathogen

An organism that causes disease

how do pathogens cause disease

invade body, evade immune system, multiply, produce toxins

how are pathogens spread

air, water, direct contact

air

coughing, sneezing, talking, spores on the breeze

air examples

tuberculosis (TB), influenza (flu), colds, measles

direct contact

sexually transmitted, cuts, scratches, via vectors (like insects + disease transmitting animals eg mosquitoes). common in plants where an infected plant spreads the disease to the whole batch