T&C recall exam 2

What is anaerobic training?

High-intensity, intermittent exercise such as weight training, plyometric drills, and speed, agility, or interval training.

Define muscular strength.

The ability of a muscle group to develop maximal contractile force against resistance in a single contraction.

Define muscular endurance.

The ability of a muscle group to exert submaximal force for extended periods.

What are the three types of muscle contractions?

Isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic

What happens during an isometric contraction?

The muscle produces force without visible movement of the joint.

Give an example of an isometric exercise.

Plank, wall sit, or holding a dumbbell at 90° without movement.

What happens during a concentric contraction?

The muscle shortens while generating force.

What happens during an eccentric contraction?

The muscle lengthens while controlling force.

What is an isokinetic contraction?

A contraction with constant velocity where resistance changes to remain maximal.

What neural structures adapt during anaerobic training?

Adaptations occur along the neuromuscular chain, from higher brain centers to individual muscle fibers.

What happens in the motor cortex during anaerobic training?

Activity increases when greater force is developed or new movements are learned.

What adaptations occur in motor units from resistance training?

Increased recruitment, firing rate, synchronization, or a combination of these.

Define the size principle

Motor units are recruited in order of size from low-threshold (Type I) to high-threshold (Type II) as force demands increase.

How can advanced lifters bypass the size principle?

Their CNS may recruit larger motor units first to promote power and speed.

What changes occur at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) with anaerobic training?

Increased area, more nerve branching, and greater dispersion of acetylcholine receptors

What is the myotatic reflex?

The stretch reflex causing rapid muscle contraction in response to sudden stretch.

How does anaerobic training affect the stretch reflex?

It enhances the reflex response, improving rate of force development.

What does an increase in EMG indicate?

Greater neural activation.

What is cross-education?

Training one limb increases strength in the untrained contralateral limb.

Define bilateral deficit.

Untrained individuals produce less force with both limbs contracting together than separately.

Define muscle hypertrophy.

Enlargement of muscle fibers due to increased cross-sectional area.

Define muscle hyperplasia.

An increase in the number of muscle fibers, often via fiber splitting.

What proteins increase during muscle hypertrophy?

Actin and myosin.

Name the connective tissue layers of muscle from outermost to innermost.

Epimysium → Perimysium → Endomysium.

What is the role of the sarcolemma?

The plasma membrane of a muscle fiber that conducts electrical signals for contraction.

What are myofibrils?

Rod-like structures within muscle fibers containing sarcomeres.

What is the sarcoplasm?

The cytoplasm of the muscle cell containing organelles and glycogen.

What is the function of satellite cells?

Aid in muscle repair and growth.

Define tendon.

Dense connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Define fascicle.

A bundle of muscle fibers surrounded by perimysium

What is the functional unit of muscle?

The sarcomere.

What happens to the H zone during contraction?

It becomes smaller.

Which sarcomere band stays the same length during contraction?

The A band.

What type of muscle fibers grow more with resistance training?

Type II fibers.

Describe the fiber type transition continuum.

I—> IIa—> IIx

How does resistance training affect fiber type transitions?

Shifts from IIx to IIa with training.

What are key structural changes from resistance training?

Increased myofibrillar volume, SR and T-tubule density, and enzyme activity.

What happens to mitochondrial density after resistance training?

It decreases.

What happens to capillary density after resistance training?

It decreases.

What is the minimal essential strain (MES)?

The threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation.

What percentage of force required to fracture bone is MES?

About 1/10.

What type of bone responds more rapidly to training stimuli?

Trabecular (spongy) bone.

How can athletes stimulate bone formation?

Use structural, weight-bearing exercises and progressively increase load.

What are the components of mechanical load that stimulate bone growth?

Magnitude, rate, direction, and volume of loading.

What is collagen?

The main structural protein in connective tissue.

What is procollagen?

The parent protein from which collagen is synthesized.

What strengthens collagen fibers?

Cross-linking between adjacent molecules.

What stimulates tendon and ligament growth?

Mechanical forces from exercise exceeding strain thresholds.

What are the functions of cartilage?

Provide smooth joint surfaces, absorb shock, and aid in tissue attachment.

How does joint mobility affect cartilage health?

Movement drives nutrient diffusion through synovial fluid to the cartilage.

What is chronological age?

The number of years since birth.

What is biological age?

Age based on physical and developmental maturity.

Define puberty.

The period when secondary sex characteristics develop and a child matures into an adult.

What is training age?

Length of time a child has followed a structured resistance program.

What is the Relative Age Effect (RAE)?

Bias where those born earlier in the year have an advantage in youth sports.

What is the Tanner scale used for?

Assessing secondary sex characteristics during puberty.

What is peak height velocity (PHV)?

The age of maximum growth rate during puberty.

When do girls reach full bone maturity compared to boys?

About 2–3 years earlier.

When do boys typically reach peak strength gains?

About 1.2 years after PHV.

What is the primary cause of strength gains in preadolescents?

Neural adaptations, not hypertrophy.

What are the three body types (somatotypes)?

Mesomorph, endomorph, and ectomorph.

What is the main risk of resistance training for children?

Damage to growth cartilage at the epiphyseal plate.

How can risk to growth cartilage be reduced?

Proper technique, gradual progression, and qualified supervision.

How much can untrained children improve strength with training?

30–40% increase after 8–20 weeks.

What is the main cause of detraining in children?

Loss of neurological adaptations when training stops.

What is the primary benefit of youth resistance training?

Improved strength, bone health, and injury resistance.

What are key components of youth training safety?

Quality instruction and appropriate rate of progression.

How can overuse injuries in youth be prevented?

Year-round physical activity, rest, and balanced nutrition.

What type of exercises are ideal for children?

Skill-based, fun, and developmentally appropriate movements.

What is the female athlete triad?

The interrelationship between low energy availability, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone mineral density.

What causes the female athlete triad?

High training volume or intensity with inadequate nutrition.

What percentage of men’s strength do women typically have in the upper body?

About two-thirds.

How do strength differences change when adjusted for muscle cross-sectional area?

Differences nearly disappear.

Can women increase strength at the same rate as men?

Yes, or even faster initially.

What is the law of initial values?

Individuals starting at a lower fitness level improve more rapidly.

What injury are female athletes six times more prone to?

ACL tears.

Why are women more susceptible to ACL injuries?

Joint laxity, ligament size, and neuromuscular deficiencies.

What can reduce ACL injury risk in women?

Proper technique and neuromuscular training.

Define osteopenia.

Bone mineral density between -1 and -2.5 SD below the mean.

Define osteoporosis.

Bone mineral density more than -2.5 SD below the mean.

What happens to muscle and bone after age 30?

Decrease in cross-sectional area, density, and strength.

What increases the risk of falls in seniors?

Decreased strength, reaction time, and balance.

What can resistance training improve in older adults?

Strength, power, bone density, and functional capability.

How much strength is typically lost per decade after age 45?

About 5–10%.

What type of exercise helps offset metabolic decline with age?

Strength training.

What should older adults avoid during training?

The Valsalva maneuver.

How long should older adults rest between sessions?

48–72 hours.

What type of exercise program is best for seniors?

Combined resistance, aerobic, and balance training.

What is the most effective exercise for increasing muscular strength in seniors?

Progressive resistance training.

How should intensity progress for older adults?

Gradually, based on individual tolerance and medical clearance.

What neural adaptations lead to early strength gains in beginners?

Improved motor unit recruitment, firing rate, and synchronization before hypertrophy occurs.

Why does neural adaptation occur before hypertrophy?

The nervous system learns to activate existing muscle fibers more efficiently before new muscle proteins are synthesized.

How does heavy resistance training affect motor unit recruitment order in advanced lifters?

They may bypass smaller units and recruit large, high-threshold motor units first to enhance power and speed.

Why is the neuromuscular junction’s surface area important?

A larger NMJ allows more acetylcholine release and receptor sites, improving signal transmission and contraction strength.

How does the myotatic reflex help prevent injury?

It triggers rapid contraction of a stretched muscle to prevent overstretching or tearing.

Why might an athlete experience strength increases in an untrained limb during unilateral training?

Cross-education causes neural adaptations in the opposite limb through shared neural pathways.

Which structural change in muscle contributes most to long-term strength gains?

Increased myofibrillar volume due to greater synthesis of actin and myosin.

What type of muscle fibers show the greatest hypertrophic response to resistance training?

Type II (fast-twitch) fibers.

What happens to mitochondrial density and capillary density with anaerobic training, and why?

Both decrease because energy demands shift toward phosphagen and glycolytic systems rather than oxidative metabolism.

Why does trabecular bone respond faster to training than cortical bone?

Its spongy structure has higher metabolic activity and surface area for remodeling.