Period 1: 1491-1607

Land Bridge

A strip of land (Beringia) that once connected Asia and North America, allowing early humans to migrate into the Americas.

Hohokam

A Native American culture in the Southwest known for its irrigation canals, agriculture, and pottery.

Pueblos

Native American groups in the Southwest who lived in adobe and stone dwellings; known for their farming and cliff dwellings.

Adena-Hopewell

Early mound-building cultures in the Ohio River Valley; known for complex burial mounds and trade networks.

Woodland Mound Builders

Native American societies in the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys that built large earthen mounds for religious and ceremonial purposes.

Mayas

A Mesoamerican civilization (c. 250-900 CE) known for advanced writing, mathematics, astronomy, and city-states in the Yucatán Peninsula.

Aztecs

A powerful Mesoamerican empire centered in Tenochtitlán (modern-day Mexico City), known for military conquests and human sacrifice.

Incas

A South American civilization in the Andes Mountains (modern-day Peru), known for their extensive road system and centralized empire.

Maize

Corn; a staple crop cultivated by Native American societies that supported large populations and complex societies.

Algonquian

A widespread Native American language group in the Northeast and Great Lakes region.

Longhouses

Communal wooden dwellings used by Iroquois and other Northeastern tribes, housing extended families.

Iroquois Confederation

A political alliance of five (later six) Northeastern tribes formed to promote peace and mutual defense before European contact.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer sailing for Spain who 'discovered' the Americas in 1492, initiating European colonization.

Roanoke Island

The site of the 'Lost Colony' founded by Sir Walter Raleigh in the 1580s; its fate remains a mystery.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the non-European world; Spain received most of the Americas, and Portugal got Brazil and lands in Africa and Asia.

Horses

Introduced by Europeans; transformed Native American societies by increasing mobility and changing hunting practices, especially on the Great Plains.

Smallpox & Measles

Deadly diseases brought by Europeans that devastated Native populations due to lack of immunity.

Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership and the investment of resources for profit, which expanded during the Age of Exploration.

Joint-stock company

A business model where investors pooled money for colonial ventures, reducing individual risk (e.g., Virginia Company).

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system where colonists were granted land and Native laborers in exchange for Christianizing them—often led to abuse.

Slavery

The forced labor of people, especially Africans, who were brought to the Americas to work in agriculture and mining.

Conquistadores

Spanish conquerors like Cortés and Pizarro who claimed vast territories in the Americas and overthrew native empires.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico (1519-1521).

Francisco Pizzaro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incan Empire in Peru in the 1530s.

Slave Trade

The forced transportation of Africans across the Atlantic to work in the Americas; a key part of the triangular trade.

Middle Passage

The horrific sea journey endured by enslaved Africans en route to the Americas; marked by high death rates and inhumane conditions.

New Laws of 1542

Spanish laws partly inspired by Las Casas that aimed to end the worst abuses of the encomienda system (though often ignored).

Bartolomé de Las Casas

A Spanish priest who advocated for Native rights and criticized the harsh treatment of Indigenous peoples.

Valladolid Debate (1550-1551)

The first moral debate in Europe over the treatment of Indigenous people; Las Casas argued they deserved rights, while Sepúlveda justified conquest.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds following Columbus's voyages.

Missions System

Spanish sent missionaries to the Americas to convert natives to Christianity.

Spanish Caste System

system based on race that was used for social control and also determined a person's role and importance in society. Peninsular, Creole, Mestizo, Indios